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Staxxd-ard. Text-Books. 



12. Finally, these Arithmetics teach the shortest, simplest, 
and most easy to be remembered modes of performing the 
different operations of which they treat. 

I. PRIMARY ARITHBIETIC. 18mo. 160 pages. Price 21 
cents. — ^This work presupposes no Icnowledge of Arithmetic. It 
commences with Elementary principles, and lays a sure founda- 
tion for what is to follow. 

II. ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC. 16mo. 347 pages. Price 
42 cents.— From the Primary the pupil proceeds to the Elementary, 
in which it is aimed to discipline the mind, to develop the reason- 
ing powers, and to prepare the pupil for the advanced departments 
of !RIat hematics. In the author's treatment of Vulgar Fractions, 
Perce. ' 'st, his new method of finding the cash 
balaxi ayments, and his improved method of 
ExtraciuK^ .<ju^, he has certainly made a great advance 
on the ot^ Elementary Arithmetics now before the public. 

III. PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC. 12mo. 356 pages. Price, 
Cloth, 62 cents. — This work covers nearly the same ground as the 
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IV. HIGHER ARITHMETIC. 12mo. 324 pages. Cloth. 
Price 75 cents. — ^This is intended as a finishing book for those who 
would complete a thorough arithmetical course. 



Perkins' Algebraic Series. 

I. ELEMENTS OF ALGERRA. 12mo. 244 pages. Price 75 
cents. — Adapted to the use of Common Schools and Academies. 

[See End op this Volttmb. 



COURSE 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



ARRANGED WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 



CONVENIENCE OF KECITATION. 



BY 



H.I. SCHMIDT, D.D., 

PROFESSOR IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 

AITTHOR OF " HISTORY OF EDUCATION : PLAN OF CULTURE AND INSTRUCTION 
"a TREATISE ON THE EUCHARIST," ETC. 



NEW YOEK : 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 

443 & M5 BEOADWAY. 
LONDON: 16 LITTLE BRITAIN. 

1860 






JJ6zJ 

,535- 



Ente.red, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860, by 

D. APPLETON & CO., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
District of New York. 



Z( I 



PEEPACE 



A PEW words will suffice to account for the appearance 
of tlie present work. The writer has not by any means 
imagined that he had any thing new to offer to the con- 
sideration of classical scholars, or that he was more com- 
petent than those who had preceded him, to do justice 
to the important subject here presented : he has been in- 
duced solely by his own wants to prepare the volume for 
pubhcation. Required to teach Ancient Geography in the 
institution with which he is connected, he has been unable to 
obtain any text-book that seemed to be well adapted to facili- 
tate recitation. The large and elaborate work of his learned 
colleague, Dr. Anthon, the only complete system of Ancient 
Geography, and the best work in this department of study 
ever published in this country, is too extensive, and goes 
so much into details, both geographical and historical, as to 
make selection imperatively necessary, and to require the 
matter contained in its pages to be broken up into ques- 
tions to be dictated to the classes, in order to enable them 
to learn the prescribed lessons. This process involves 
some inconvenience, and much waste of time. The much 
smaller work of Dr. Schmitz, entitled : "A Manual of An- 



IV PEEFACE. 

cient Geography," excellent as it is in other respects, 
seems to be entirely unsuited to the purposes of the recita- 
tion room. It is hence solely with the design of furnish- 
ing a text-book arranged with special reference to con- 
venience of recitation, that the present work has been 
prepared : it has cost the writer a great deal of time and 
labor, and he would fain hope that he has measurably suc- 
ceeded in supplying a want, of the existence of which his 
own conviction has been confirmed by repeated assur- 
ances from eminent teachers. 

In order to attain the object thus had in view, the 
matter presented in this volume has been broken up into 
short paragraphs, which are all numbered ; and questions 
referring to these, and marked by corresponding numbers, 
are given in the lower margin. This arrangement will 
greatly facilitate the acquisition of the lessons by the 
pupils, as well as contribute to the convenience of recita- 
tion. 

Another object kept constantly in view has been, to in- 
troduce nothing in this book, which, where sufficient time 
is devoted to classical studies, should not be required to be 
learned and recited by every student. As regards this 
point, there will, doubtless, be difference of opinion j but 
as the writer has, in respect of the selection and quantity 
of matter introduced, enjoyed the advice of a distinguished 
professor of classical learning, he indulges the hope that he 
has, on the whole, accomplished his object. The profound 
interest which attaches to the geography of the ancient 
world arises not only from the historical, but perhaps still 
more from the mythological, legendary, and literary asso- 
ciations connected with different regions and localities. 
These, therefore, fill up a large space in this volume. In a 
few instances, where the prescribed limits have been ex- 
ceeded, interesting information has been thrown into mar- 
ginal notes. 

The general arrangement of the work, which is un- 



PREFACE* V 

^eniably peculiar, will reqtiire a word of explanation. The 
volume opens with a short chapter presenting a succinct 
account of the knowledge of geography possessed by the 
ancients at different periods, and of the gradual extension 
of their acquaintance with the inhabited world. Then, 
taking up Europe, it first describes Greece in pretty ample 
detail, and afterwards Italy in the same manner. Pro- 
ceeding next to Asia, it gives a full account of Asia Minor. 
This constitutes what may be properly termed Classical 
Geography— that portion of ancient geography which the 
student most and most constantly needs in his classical 
reading. And to present all that is essential and im- 
portant in this, is the main design of the present work. 
This part of his task accomplished, the writer retraces his 
steps, returns to Europe, then to Asia, and lastly proceeds 
to Africa, and gives a far less copious account of what the 
ancients knew of the remaining parts of the former two 
continents, and of the northern portion of Africa : an ac- 
count, however, which contains, as he believes, details 
amply sufficient for the recitation room, and for the student 
of ancient history. In adopting this arrangement, which 
really seems the most natural in a work of this kind, and is 
based upon the relative importance of the countries de- 
scribed, the advice of a number of distinguished instruc- 
tors has been taken : all who were consulted agreed unan- 
imously in its appropriateness, not only in a general point 
of view, but especially as respects the wants and con- 
venience of the recitation room. 

In preparing this work, no inconveniently large number 
of authorities, but the very best that were accessible, have 
been consulted, carefully compared, and freely used 
throughout. Where authorities differed as regards the 
sites of places noted in ancient times, the valuable maps of 
Kiepert have, in several doubtful instances, been regarded 
as decisive. No pains have been spared to render the 
work as correct as our knowledge of the ancient world 



VI PEEFACE. 

will permit, and particular care has been taken accurately 
to indicate the quantity of all names requiring to be thus 
marked. The works most relied and most largely drawn 
upon, are the following : Cramer's Ancient Greece : Cra- 
mer's Ancient Italy : Cramer's Asia Minor : Dr. Smith's 
" 'New Classical Dictionary of Biography, Mythology, and 
Geography," (London, 1850.) Sickler's "Handbuch der 
alten Geographic : " " Travels in ]!!^orthern Greece," by 
Wm. Martin Leake, F. R. S., &c., in 4 vols., London, 
1835: "Travels in the Morea. With a Map and Plans," 
by the same, in 3 vols., London, 1830. Besides these, the 
following have furnished sundry items of important in- 
formation : " Peloponnesos : Eine Historisch Geographische 
Beschreibung der Halbmsel," Von Ernst Curtius. Gotha, 
1851 : Ukert's " Geographic der Griechen und Romer : " 
Liddell's Eome : Murray's " Hand-Book for Travellers in 
the Ionian Islands, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, and Con- 
stantinople : " Willson's " Outlines of History : " " Travels 
and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana," by Wm. Ken- 
nett Loftus, F. G. S. : Pauly's " Real-Encyclopaedie der 
classischen Alterthumswisenschaft," Stuttgart, 1839-1852: 
the Conversations-Lexicon of Brockhaus; and Home's 
" Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the 
Scriptures." For the more brief description of the coun- 
tries not properly classical, the matter has, with constant 
and careful reference to other authorities, been chiefly 
taken from the Eev. W. L. Bevan's " Manual of Ancient 
Geography," London, 1852. 

It is proper to state, that whenever to distances in 
stadia the measure in miles is subjoined, and these miles 
can again be reduced to stadia by multiplying by eight, the 
measure is given ia Roman miles. This will, upon the 
whole, be found sufficiently exact. But, as the Roman 
mile was 142 yards less than the English statute mile, it is 
obvious that the precise distance will be obtained in all 



PKEFACE. Vll 

such cases, by adding that number of yards for each mile. 
The Enghsh statute mile measures 1760 yards. 

A good ancient atlas was long a desideratum in this 
country. This want has been satisfactorily supplied by the 
publication of Findlay's " Classical Atlas," and of Long's 
" Atlas of Classical Geography," either of which will be 
found sufficient for the most thorough course of ancient 
Geography ever pursued in colleges or academies. 



RULES FOR THE PROKUNCIATIOK OF AK- 
CIENT NAIVIES. 

The penults of the most common terminations of an- 
cient names have the following quantities : — 

— acus, as Corinthiacus. 

— ana, Sogdiana. 

— ea, as Apamea, Caesarea. 

— ene, as Adiahene, Gyrene. 

— icus, a, urn, as Baetica, Adriaticum. 

— inus, a, um, as Lucrinus, Clusinus. Fucmus is ant excep- 

tion. 

— itis, as Trachonitis. 

— otis, as Phthiotis. 

— polis, as AmphipoUs, Decapolis. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PAGE 

Orbis TERRAiRirM Veteribus Notus 1 

CHAPTER II. 

EUROPA 4, 256 

Section I. — Graecia 7 

Mountains of Greece 8 

Promontories 9 

Seas 9 

Gulfs 10 

Strait 12 

Lakes 12 

Rivers 12 

1. Epirus 17 

2. Thessalia 19 

3. Acamania 26 

4. Aetolia 31 

5. Doris S3 

6. Locris 33 

7. Phoeis 35 

8. Boeotia 40 

9. Megaris 51 

10. Attica 52 

11. Euboea 60 

12. Peloponnesus 64 

A. Acliaia 67 

B. Sicyonia 69 

c. Elis 70 

D. Messenia 74 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

E. Laconia 75 

F. Argolis 79 

G. Arcadia 83 

13. The Grecian Islands 85 

Section II. — Italia 90 

Mountains 92 

Promontories 93 

Eivers Qi 

Lakes 98 

1. Upper Italy 102 

A. Liguria 102 

B. GaUia Cisalpina 103 

c. Veuetia and Histria 108 

I. Venetia 108 

II. Istria or Histria 109 

2. Central Italy Ill 

A. Etnu'ia Ill 

B. Umbria 117 

c. Picenum 120 

D. Territory of the Sabini 122 

E. Marsi 124: 

F. Peligni 124 

G. Vestini 125 

H. Marrucini 125 

I. Roma 126 

K. Latinm 128 

L. Hernici 133 

M. Volsci 134 

N. Campania 138 

Samnium 148 

3. Lower Italy 151 

A. Apulia 151 

B. Lucania 158 

c. Brattium 162 

4. The Islands of Italy 169 

CHAPTER III. 

ASIA 189 

Asia Mixor 191 

1. Mysia 192 

2. Lydia 199 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGE 

3. Ionia 202 

4. Caria 210 

5. Bithynia 214 

6. PapMagonia 217 

7. Pontus 220 

8. Lycia 224 

9. Pisidia 227 

10. PamphyHa 229 

11. Cnicia 231 

12. Phrygia 237 

13. Galatia 242 

14. Lycaonia 244 

15. Cappadocia 246 

16. Isauria 248 

17. Ehodus 249 

18. Cyprus 251 

CHAPTER TV, 

EUROPA {continued) 256 

1. Thracia 256 

2. Mysia... 257 

3. Dacia 258 

4. niyricum or Illyria 259 

5. Macedonia 260 

6. Hispania 262 

7. Gallia 265 

8. Britannia vel Britannicae Insulae 269 

9. Germania 273 

10. Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia 276 

11. Sarmatia Europaea 277 

CHAPTER V. 

ASIA MAJOR 279 

1. Colchis, Iberia, and Albania 279 

2. Armenia 280 

3. Mesopotamia 282 

4. Babylonia 283 

5. Assyria 284 

6. Persis 285 

7. India, Sinae, Serica 292 

8. Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica 294 



Xll CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

9. Syria 296 

10. Phoenicia ^ 297 

11. Palaestina ....w. » ; * a 290 

12. Arabia * ,;., 304 



CHAPTEK VI. 

AFRICA .....i... ;.,.. 307 

1. Africa as known to the Ancients 307 

2. Aegyptus and Aethiopia 309 

3. Marmarica, Cyrenaica, and Syrtica 312 

4. Africa Propria ...i ^ 314: 

5. Numidia 315 

6. Mauretania * * 316 



ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 



CHAPTER I. 

OEBIS TEREAEUM VETEEIBTJS NOTUS. 

1. Our knowledge of the ancient world is derived 
almost wholly from the works of Greek and Latin writers, 
and is, therefore, limited to the countries and places 
which are mentioned in their writings, or of which their 
geographers have left us descriptions. Hence it will be ad- 
vantageous quite briefly to state, in the first place, what 
portion of the earth's surface was known to them, before 
we proceed to a description of the different countries into 
which it was divided. 

2. The geographical knowledge of the ancients, limited, 
at first, among different peoples, to a more or less perfect 
acquaintance with their own territories and their immedi- 
ate surroundings, gradually advanced, as conquest or com- 
merce brought them into contact with fresh nations. To 
the mind of Homer (about 900 b. c), the earth appeared 
to be a circular plane, in the middle of which lay Hellas, 
with its surrounding islands, having for its central point 
the lofty, cloud-capped Olympus, which was hence also the 
centre of the whole terrestrial circle, of the entire Orbis 
terrarum. Besides Hellas, Homer's world inclosed Asia 
Minor, Syria, the Eastern half of the African coast, Sicily, 
Macedonia, and the Euxine sea. But even of these parts 
of our world, the knowledge of the great poet was evident- 
ly very imperfect and inaccurate: his accounts, rather 

1. Whence is our knowledge of Ancient Geography, or of the ancient world, 
derived ? 2. What was Homer's notion of the world ? 3. How far did the knowl- 
1 



2 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

ehorographical than geographical, are obscure and fabulous, 
and embrace, as appears from the specifications above, 
chiefly the countries lying around the Aegaean or Archi- 
pelago, and the S. coast of the Euxine. — Homer regarded 
his circular plane as bounded by an all-surrounding stream 
or Ocean, 'OKcavds, from Hhok, the boundary kut Hox^v, 
and within these limits he knew of only two principal re- 
gions, the side of day, Trph'? rjdT rjeXiovTe, mo7ming and 
noon, i. e., the JS!ast and under the meridian, and the side 
of night or darkness, irpo? ^ocfiov, evening and the darkness of 
night, i. e., the West, 

3. In the next five centuries this circle was consider- 
ably extended. Herodotus (about 450 b. c.) was acquaint- 
ed with all the shores of the Mediterranean, the interior of 
!N"orthern Africa, Asia as far as the Indus and the Caspian, 
and Europe northwards to the Danube, with the districts 
adjoining the Euxine. 

4. The conquests of Alexander (about 330 b. c.) extend- 
ing northwards to the laxartes and beyond the Indus east- 
wards, added much to the knowledge of Persia and West- 
ern India ; and his successors followed up the same line of 
discovery, by establishing commercial relations with the 
states of Central India, and even beyond the Ganges. 

5. The countries of Western Africa (Numidia and 
Mauretania), and also of Western Europe (Spain, Gaul, 
Germany and the British Isles), of which only the coasts 
and general position had been known to the Greeks, were 
fully opened by the arms of the Romans, in the centuries 
preceding and following the Christian era : their system of 
government by military occupation, involving the formation 
of roads and the establishment of numerous towns, con- 
tributed to an intimate acquaintance with the interior of 
those countries. 

6. Taking ancient geography at its greatest extent, it 
deals with but a small portion of the habitable world. 
America was of course utterly unknown. We may say 
the same of Central and Southern Africa, and of the 
E"orthern districts of Europe and Asia : in short, the 
ancients knew very little of the latter beyond the Ganges 
and the Himalaya range, and of the former beyond the 
Vistula and the Danube. 

edge of Herodotus extend ? 4. What contributed greatly to tlie extension of 
geographical kno-wledge ? 5. What led, subsequently, to a still more extended 
and more intimate knowledge of geography ? 6. Ho-w may the knowledge of ge- 



OEBIS TEERAKUM VETEEIBUS NOTUS. 3 

T. The world within these limits was usually divided 
into three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The boun- 
daries of the two more important continents will be given 
more particularly hereafter ; we give them here, of all 
three, in the most general terms. Europe was bounded 
by the Oceanus Atlanticus in the W., the Mare Internum in 
the S., and the Tanais in the E. — ^Asia by the Oceanus Eous 
in the E., the Oceanus Indicus in the S., and the Arabicus 
Sinus, Mare Internum, and Tanais in the "W. : both these 
continents were supposed to be bounded in the 'N. also by 
an ocean which was called Septentrionalis, or Glacialis, but 
of which there was no actual knowledge. Lastly, Africa 
was bounded by the Mare Internum on the N"., the Ocean- 
us Atlanticus on the W., the Arabicus Sinus on the E., 
and an unknown sea called Oceanus Aethiopicus in the S. 

8. The most conspicuous feature in the map of the 
ancient world is the great internal sea, which belongs 
equally to the three continents. 

9. Later geographers named this sea Mare Medi- 
terraneum, which has been adopted by moderns; but 
in classical writers this name does not occur. We find it 
called by the Greeks y eo-co ^aXarra, or r] evros ^dXaTTa, or, 
more fully, rj ivTo<; 'HpaK/\.etW (TTTjXiov S-dXaTra, and by Herod- 
otus rjSc rj ^dXarra; and from its washing the coasts both 
of Greece and Italy, it was also called, both by Greeks 'and 
Romans, Our /Sea, rj rjjx^Tepa ^dXarra, 7] KaS^ rffxas S^dXarra, 
Mare ISTostrum; and by Roman geographers Mare 
Internum; a name corresponding to the Greek terms 
given above, and denoting the inward as opposed to the 
outward ocean. 

10. The northern coast of the Mediterranean is varied 
by numerous peninsulas, and lined with groups of islands. 
It was on this accomit highly favorable to the coasting 
navigation of early days; and by thus encouraging the 
growth of commercial enterprise, it became the central 
abode of the most flourishing nations of antiquity, and the 
high-road of commerce and civilization. 

We shall now consider the three conti^ients separately, 
in the order suggested by their relative importance. 

ography possessed by the ancients be briefly summed up ? 7. Within these limits 
how was the world usually divided, and what were the general boundaries of 
each division ? 8. What is the most conspicuous feature in the map of the ancient 
world ? 9. By what names was this sea designated ? 10. What is the character of 
the northern coast of the Mediterranean, aflording what advantages ? 



ASClESr GEOGEAPHT. 



CHAPTER II. 
EUR O PA. 

1. Althougli the name Europe (EvpwTD^) first occurs in 
the so-called Homeric hymn to Apollo, it is there used 
in a very limited application, denoting only Greece exclu- 
sive of the Peloponnesus, and perhaps also embracing Mace- 
donia, Illyricum, and Italy. At a later period we find this 
name employed by Herodotus (IV, 45, 36, 41, 42) to desig- 
nate the northern portion of the then known and inhab- 
ited earth, extending from the pillars of Hercules to the 
farthest E. of Asia. 

2. The derivation of the name is merely conjectural. Jn 
Grecian mythology it is derived from Europa, the daughter 
of Agenor. As respects the etymological derivation, it is 
the opinion of Hermann that, because Europe appeared to 
the Greeks of Asia Minor as the far-extended coast-land, 
they gave it the name 'Evpdmr], from EvpcoTro?, ly, ov, as op- 
posed to (TTcvoiirosj " narrow,''^ " strait," " confined." Its 
most probable derivation, however, is from the Phoenician 
Aereb, still preserved in the Hebrew, n-ny, ''evening,''^ 
" darJcening,''^ " sun-set,^^ so that in its Hellenized form, 
EupcoTTi; denoted ^^ the evening land^'^ ''Hhe land of sun-set^'' 
in opposition to Asia, " the land of light, of splendor, of 
sunrise," the land whence the Asen (Asi), ^'•the men oflighV^ 
or " of the East " proceeded. This derivation is preferable 
to that proposed by Bochart, viz., from the Phoenician Ur- 
appa, " quasi terram XevKOTrpoa-oiTrov, quia Europaei Africa- 
nos eandore faciei longe super ant P "Europe" would 
then denote " the land of the WestP 

3. As early as the time of Herodotus either thePhasis, 
or the Tan^is, was regarded as the eastern boundary of 

1. Where does the name Europe first occur ? -what was its earliest applica- 
tion ? How does Herodotus use it ? 2. What is the derivation of the name ? 
3. In the time of Herodotus, of Plato, and of Eratosthenes, what was regarded as 



EUEOPA. 5 

Europe. Plato says it was the Phasis, Eratosthenes the 
Tanais. With the latter, Pomponius Mela, and Ptolemy- 
agree. 

4. Ptolemy (about a. d. 160) gives the following as the 
boundaries of Europe : from the Mare Atlanticum in the 
W., to the Tanais {I)on)^ the Palus Maeotis {Sea of Azof), 
the Pontus Euxinus {Black JSea), the Propontis {Sea of 
Marmara)^ the Hellespont {Dardanelles) and the Aegaean 
in the E. : from the Mare Internum in the S. to the North- 
ern Ocean in the 'N. 

5. A striking feature in the European Continent is 
found in its many large inland seas, and in the great num- 
ber of large gulfs which, runniag far inland, wash its 
broken coasts and open highways to commercial enterprise. 
Beginning at the N. we have first the A.7'ctie Ocean or Icy 
Sea^ 6 Kpwto? 'OKeavos, the Mare Cronium or Pigrum 
of the Romans: below this is the Mare Germanicum, 
the North Sea or German Ocean : from this several small 
straits lead into the Sinus Codanus, ov Kattegat, and 
the Mare Suevicum, or ^«?^5^c Sea/ returning thence 
into the German Ocean, a S. W. course leads us through 
the Fretum Gallicum, or Straits of Dover, into the 
Oceanus Britanicus, ov British Channel, and then into 
the Mare Atlanticum, or Atlantic Ocean. Crossing 
now the Oceanus Cantabricus, or Day of Biscay, and 
passing through the Fretum Herculeum or Straits of 
Gihraltar,WQ enter that great inland sea, which the Romans, 
as we have seen above, called Mare Nostrum, but geogra- 
phers Mare Internum. That part of the Mare Internum 
which lies between Hispania and Italia is divided into two 
very unequal portions by the islands of Sardo, Sardinia, 
and Cyrnos, Corsica. E. of Sicily a large inlet, the Sinus 
Hadriaticus, the Adriatic Sea, runs in a N. W. direc- 
tion far into the mainland ; and farther E. another, called 
the Mare Aegaeum, Archipelago, diWidiQ^ Greece from 
Asia Minor. From this the Hellespontus, Dardanelles, 
the Propontis, Sea of Marmara, and the Bosporus 
Thracius, Strait of Constantinople, lead into the Pontus 
Euxinus, the Black Sea; and from this, lastly, the Bos- 
porus Cimmerius, Strait of Caffa, or Feodosia or Jen- 
icale,\ead^ into the Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azof ore Assow. 

the E. boundary of Europe ? 4. WTiat were the boundaries of Europe according 
to Ptolemy? 5. What etriliing feature does the European continent present? 
JSTame and point out the eeas and gulfs, beginning at the North. 6. What is said 



6 » ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

6. It is said that the Greeks first called the Eiixine "Aleves 
{inhospitable)^ from the savage character of the peoples on 
its coast, and from the supposed terrors of its navigation, 
and that afterwards, when colonies brought civilization to 
its shores, they changed its name, on their favorite prin- 
cij)le of euphemism (i. e. abstaining from words of evil 
omen) to Ev^evos, Ion. 'EiV^^tvos, hospitable. 

1. Bosporus, Boa-iropos, corrupted by modem ortho- 
grajDhy to JBosphorus, composed of BoGs and Tropos, signifies a 
ford for oxen, or a strait so narrow that it may be crossed 
by an ox swimming. The legend connects the name with 
lo, the daughter of lasus, or Inachus. We have mentioned 
above the tw:o straits to which geographers have applied 
the term. The more important of these, the Bosporus 
Thracius, or Strait of Constantinople, is a channel about 
17 miles in length, with a width varying from half a mile 
to two miles. 

8. The two largest rivers of Europe, as regards the 
length of their course, are the Volga^ called by the an- 
cients Rha, and the Do7i^ Tanais. Of the other more 
important rivers, the Mbro^ Iberus, the Rhone^ Rhoda- 
nus, and the Po, Padus, em^Dty into the Mediterranean : 
the J)a7iube, Danubius or Ister, and the Dnieper^ Da- 
napris or Borysthenes, into the Black Sea: the J^2oma, 
Carambacis, into the White or Icy Sea; the Vistula 
and the Oder^ Viadus, or Yiadrus, into the Baltic : the . 
JElbe^ Albis, the TFeser, Yisurgis, and the JRhine, Rhe- 
nus, into the German Ocean: the Sei7ie, Sequana, into the 
British Channel ; theXo^Ve, Liger, the Garojine, Gaviim- 
na, the Tagus, and the Chiadalquivir, Baetis, into the 
Atlantic. The first two named empty, the Don into the Sea 
of Azof, the Volga into the Caspian. 

9. The principal mountain chains in Europe are, the 
Alps, Alpes, in Switzerland and Italy; the Pyrenees, 
PyrenaeiMontes, between France and Spain ; Xh^Apen-^ 
nines, Apenninus Mons, in Italy ; the Ural Mountains, 
Rhipaei or Hyperborei Montes, on the !N". E. boun- 
dary: the Carpathian 3foiintains, Carpates, between 
Dacia and Sarmatia, and the Ha emus range, Balkan, 
between Thrace and Moesia. 



to have been the earlier name of the Euxine, and how came it to be changed? 
7. What is meant by Bosporus, and what does it denote in Geography ? 8. Name 
and point ont the largest and most important rivers of Europe. 9. "What are the 
principal mountain chains of Europe ? 



GKAECIA. 



SECTIOI I. 
a R A E C I A . 

1. By the name Graecia, Greece^ we mean the penin- 
sula which separates the Aegaean and Ionian Seas. It Hes 
between the 36th and 41st degrees of IST. latitude, and be- 
tween the 21st and 26th degrees of E. longitude. 

2. The Greeks called their country Hellas. Among 
them, however, this name did not signify any particular 
country, bounded by certain geographical limits, but was 
used in general to signify the abode of the Hellenes, as 
they called themselves, wherever they might happen to be 
settled. Thus, according to this ethnographic designation, 
the Greek colonies of Gyrene in Africa, of Syracuse in Sicily, 
of Tarentum in Italy, and of Smyrna in Asia, are said to be 
in Hellas. 

3. The Romans called the land of the Hellenes Graecia^ 
whence we have derived the name of Greece. They 
probably gave this name to the country from their first 
becoming acquainted with the tribe of the TpatKot, 
Graeci^ who appear at an early period to have dwelt on 
the W. coast of Epirus, and hence were not Greeks in the 
Grecian sense of the term. 

4. The greatest length of Greece proper (including Pelo- 
ponnesus), from Mt. Olympus to CapeTaenarus is about 250 
English miles : its greatest breadth from the W. coast of 
Acarnania to Marathon in Attica is about 180 miles. 

5. Graecia was bounded on the [N". by Macedonia and 
Illyria, from which it was separated by the Cambunian and 
Ceraunian mountains, on the W. by the Ionian sea, and on 
the E. and S. by the Aegaean sea. 

6. It is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe, 
and possesses few extensive plains and few continuous val- 
leys. The inhabitants were thus separated from one an- 
other by barriers which it was not easy to surmount, and 
were naturally led to form separate political communities. 

1. What do you mean Toy Graecia or Greece ? Where is it situated ? 2. How 
did the Greeks call their country, and what sort of designation is it ? 3. What 
was the origin of the name of Graecia? 4. What are the dimensions of Greece 
proper ? 5. How was Greece l)0unded ? 6. What sort of country is Greece, and 



8 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

V. The two great divisions of Greece were, I. Graecia 
Propria, Greece Proper^ comprising all that lies E. of the 
Istlnnus of Corinth, and IST. and IST. W. of the Corinthiacns 
Sinus, and is bounded N. and W. by Epii'us and Mace- 
donia : this part is also called Middle Greece, because 
Macedonia and Epirus are sometimes reckoned as compo- 
nent parts of Graecia : excluding these two countries, we 
may distinguish between Thessaly as Northern^ and the re- 
mainder of Graecia Propria as Central Greece; 11. Pelo- 
ponnesus, or the peninsula connected with Hellas proper 
by the isthmus of Corinth, and lying S. of the Corinthiacus 
Sinus. 

MOUNTAINS OF GREECE. 

8. The IST. boundary of Greece is a chain of mountains 
commencing with the lofty Olympus, now -E'/^ymJo, the 
reputed abode of the gods, on the E. near the shore of the 
Aegaean, and terminating in the high ]3romontory of Acr o- 
ceraunium, Cape Linguetta^ which projects into the 
Ionian sea: the Cambunii Montes, Lacmon^ and the 
CerauniiMontes, Khimara^ form the intervening links. 
From the centre of this chain proceeds the southerly ridge 
of Pin d us, which may be called the back-bone of the 
peninsula : the name indeed applies only to the mountain 
between Thessaly and Epirus ; but we may trace the line 
of elevation uninterruptedly through Tymphrestus, Ve- 
liikhi^ and Oeta, ^ai(ayo?Aro?z, to Parnassus in Phocis, and 
thence to Helicon in Boeotia. Immediately S. of Olympus, 
and separated from it only by the narrow pass of Tempe, 
is Mt. Ossa, ^2SS0i"0.* proceeding S. E. from here along 
the shore of the Aegaean, we come to Mt. Pelion, Ples- 
sidhi ; and near the S. border is the lofty range of 
Othrys, JeraJco. 

9. In Central Greece we find continuations and more or 
less detached off-shoots of Pindus, such as O e t a in the ]^., 
a rugged pile of mountains, having the famous pass of 
Thermopylae between it and the Maliacus Sinus: Par- 
nassus, Liohura^ with many rough and rocky peaks: 
Helicon, Pafeeo?;o^m^; Qilh.d^Qxon^ PJlatea : Hymet- 
t u s , Trellavouno^ and Pentelicus, PenUle^ the last two 
being not far from each other in Attica. 

how did its character affect the inhabitants ? 7. What were the general or main di- 
visions of Greece ? 8. Name and point out the chief mountains of N. Greece or Thes- 
ealy. 9. What and where were the principal mountains of Central Greece ? 10. Name 



GEAECIA. 9 

10. The most noted mountains in the Peloponnesus 
were Cyllene, Mt. Zyria^ the highest, from which, as 
from the root of an immense claw, the several branches of 
the colossal mountain-frame of the Peloponnesus spread 
out: Lycaeus: Maenalus, Hoinon: Parthenius, now 
Partheni^ running S. E. through Laconia : in the W. the 
Erymanthus, Kallifoni: although Cyllene is the high- 
est summit, the loftiest ridge in the peninsula isTaygetus, 
separating Laconica and Messenia, and extending from the 
frontiers of Arcadia down to the Promontorium Taenarum. 

PEOMONTORIES OF GREECE. 

11. The most noted promontories of Greece were Ac- 
tium. La Punta^ on the Sinus Ambracius, noted for the 
victory over Antony and Cleopatra, Sept. 2d, b. c. 31 : — 
Khion or Rhium, Kastro Morea^ and Antirrhion or 
Antirrhium, Kastro Poumeli, oy Gastello di Pomelia^ 
lying opposite each other and forming the narrow entrance 
to the Corinthian gulf, which straits are now called the 
Little Dardanelles: — ^Taenarum, Cape Matapan, and 
Male a, also Male a, Gape /St. Angela, the southernmost 
points of Laconia: Sunium, Cape 6Wow?^«, the southern- 
most point of Attica: Artemisium, Amoui, the extreme 
northern point of the island of Euboea, off which the Greeks 
defeated the fleet of Xerxes, b.c. 480. 

SEAS OF GREECE. 

12. The seas belonging to Greece are the Aegaean, the 
Myrtoan and the Ionian. 

13. The Mare Aegaeum, now the Archipelago, 
was bounded on the K. by Thrace and Macedonia, on the 
W. by Greece, and on the E. by Asia Minor. The origin 
of its name is uncertain : some derive it from Aegeus, the 
king of Athens and father of Theseus, who threw himself 
into it : others from Aegaea, the queen of the Amazons, 
who perished there ; and others, lastly, from alyis, a squall, 
on account of its sudden and violent storms. 

14. The Aegaean sea contains in its southern part two 
groups of islands, the Cyclades, which were separated 

and point out the principal mountains of Peloponnesus. 11. Name and point out the 
most noted promontories of Greece, beginning at the north-westernmost point and 
passing thence round the peninsula. 12. What seas belong to Greece ? 13. Where 
is the Aegaean, and what la said of the origin of its name ? 14. What does the 

1* 



10 AKCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

irom the coasts of Attica and Peloponnesus by the Mare 
Myrtoum, and the Sporades, lying off the coasts of Caria 
and loDia. The part of the Aegaean which washed the Spo- 
rades was called the Tcana^ &ea^ Icarium Mare, from 
the island Icaria, one of the Sporades. A number of islands 
were scattered about the northern part of the Aegaean, 
the largest of which are Euboea, Negropont: Samos, 
now Samo: Chios, Khio : Lesbos, Mytilene ; and 
L e m n s , Stalimene. 

15. The Ionium Mare, apart of the Mediterranean 
between Italy and Greece, was S. of the Adriatic, and be- 
gan on the W. at Hydruntum in Calabria, and on the E. at 
Oricus in Epirus, or at the Ceraunian mountains. Its name 
was usually derived by the ancients from the wanderings of 
lo, but it was more probably so called from the Ionian col- 
onies, which settled in Cephallenia and the other islands off 
the W. coast of Greece. 

16. Mare Creticum, now Cretan Sea^ was the name 
given to that part of the Mediterranean which is between 
Greece and the Cyclades on the IST. and the island of Creta, 
Candia^ on the S. 

17. The Myrtoum Mare, Myrtoan Sea, is that part 
of the Aegaean which is S. of Euboea, Attica, and Argolis, 
and extends as far S. as the Malea Promontorium. It de- 
rived its name from the small island Myrt o s, though others 
suppose it to come from Myi'tilus, whom Pelops threw into 
this sea, or from the maiden Myrto. 

GULPS OF GEEECE. 

18. The principal gulfs on the coast of Greece are a., the 
Sinus Ambracius, Gulf of Arta: 5., Sinus Corinth- 
iacus, now Q. of Corinth or JLepanto : c. Sinus Mes- 
seniacus, or Asinaeus, or Coronaeus, now G, of 
Koron^ or, more recently, G. of Kalamata : d.. Sinus La- 
conicus, G. of Kolol^ythia: e.. Sinus Argolicus, G. 
ofNapoli:f., Sinus Saronicus, G.of^gina:g.,^inu^ 
Maliacus, G. of Zeitouni: A., Sinus Pag^asaeus, G. of 
Volo : and ^^, Sinus Thermaicus, G. of Salo7iiki. 

19. The Ambracius Sinus, G, of Arta, between Epi- 

Aegaean sea contain ? 15. Where "was the Ionium Mare, and whence is its name 
derived? 16. What was the Mare Creticum? 17. Where was the Mare Myrtoum, 
and whence has its name been derived? 18. IsTame and point out the principal 
gulfs on the coast of Greece, beginning with the north-westernmost, and thence 
passing round the peninsula. 19. Where was the Sinus Ambracius, how largo, 



GEAECIA. 11 

rus and Acarnania, is 25 miles long and 10 wide : the nar- 
rowest part of the entrance is only YOO yards, but its general 
width is about half a mile. 

20. The Sinus Corinthiacus, G, of JLepanto^ is be- 
tween the coasts of Aetolia, Phocis, and Boeotia on the 1^. 
and the IST. coast of the Peloponnesus on the S. In early 
times it was called the Grissaean gulf (a name afterwards 
confined to that part between the Locri-Ozolae and Phocis), 
and its eastern part the Alcyonian Sea. 

21. The Sinus Cyparissius was an open bay on the 
coasts of Elis and Messenia, extending from Ichthys 
Promontorium, G. Katakolo^ in the IST. to Cyparis- 
sium Prom., G, Arhadhia^ in the S. : its modern name 
is Gulf of ArJcadhia. 

22. The Sinus Messeniacus, G. of Kalamata^\% on 
the S. coast of Messenia, extending from Acritas Prom, 
on the W". to Thyrides Prom., Cape Grosso, on the S. 
E. It was also called Asinaeus Sin., from the town of 
A sine, a little N". of Acritas Prom. Strabo also calls it 
Coronaeus Sin., whence its modern name, G. ofKoron, 
but more recently G. of Kalamata. 

23. The Sinus Laconicus, now Gulf of GoloJcythia^ 
was in the S. of Peloponnesus, between Taenarum Prom, on 
the W. and the island and promontory of Onugnathus on 
the E., and received the waters of the Eurotas. 

24. The Sinus Argolicus washed the E. coast of 
Laconia and the S. coast of Argolis. It is now the Gulf of 
ISTauplia or I^apoli, so named from a city near its head. 

25. The Sinus Saronicus, Gulf of JEgina^ lay be- 
tween Attica and Argolis, commencing between the Sunium 
Prom, in Attica, and that of Scyllaeum in Argolis. It con- 
tains within it the islands of A e gin a and Salami s. Its 
name was usually derived from Saron, king of Troezene, 
who was supposed to have been drowned in this part of 
the sea, while swimming in pursuit of a stag. A difierent 
derivation is given by Pliny. 

26. The Sinus Opuntius, Gulf of Talanta^ was on 
the coast of the Locri Opuntii, between Cynus Prom, on 
the [N". and Cynosura Prom, on the S. 

27. Tfie Maliacus Sinus, Gulf of Zeitouni, also ■wiit- 

and what the -width of its entrance? 20. Where is the Sinus Corinthiacus? What 
names had it in early times ? 21. Where was the Sinus Cyparissius ? 22. Where 
was the Sinus Messeniacus, and what other names had it ? 23. Where was the 
Sinus Loconicus? 24. Where was the Sinus Argolicus? 25. Where was the 
Sinus Saronicus, and why was it so called ? 26. Wliere was the Sinus Opimtius ? 



12 AKCEENT GEOGEAPHY. 

ten Zeitun^ was S. of Thessaly, rnnning W. from the K". W. 
point of the island of Euboea. On the S. side of it Tvas the 
pass of Thermopylae. It derived its name from the Ma- 
lienses, who dwelt on its shores. It is sometimes called the 
Lamiacus Sinus, from the town of Lamia in its neigh- 
borhood. 

28. The Pagasaens or Pagasicus Sinus, Gulf of 
Volo, was on the S. coast of Thessaly, being closely em- 
braced by the peninsula of Magnesia on the E. and S. It 
derived its name from Pagasae, a town on the coast of 
Magnesia, where Jason is said to have built the ship Argo. 

29. The Thermaicus or Thermaeus Sinus, Gulf 
of jSalo?iiki, lay between Thessaly and Macedonia on the 
W. and the peninsula Chalcidice on the E. It obtained its 
name from the town Therma at its head: it was also 
called Macedonicus Sinus. 

STEAIT. 

30. Euripus is the name that was given to the nar- 
row strait, now called Strait of JEgripo^ which separates 
Euboea from Boeotia, and which is noted for its extraordi- 
nary tides. 

LAXES OF GEEECE. 

31. There were no lakes of much importance in Greece, 
most of them being little more than marshes. The most 
noted are: Acherusia, still so called, in the district of 
Thesprotia in Epirus: Copais or Cephissus Lacus, now 
L. Topolias^ in Boeotia, the largest lake in Greece; Boe- 
beis, in the district of Pelasgiotis, in Thessaly: Stym- 
phalis, Zaraka^ in the N. E. of Arcadia: Lerna or 
Lerne inArgolis: each of the last two rendered famous 
by the labors of Hercules. 

EIVEES OF GEEECE. 

32. There are very few large riyers in Greece. Most 
of them are mere coast-streams, and, flowing into the sea 
from mountains near the coast, insignificant, often entirely 
dry during the hot season. The most important were, a., 

27. Where ^vas the Sinus Maliacus ? Whence is its name derived, and what other 
name had it? 28. Where ■was the Sinus Pagasaeus, and named after T."hat ? 
29. Where was the Thermaicus Sinus, whence deriving its name, also having 
what other name ? 30. What strait belonging to Greece is to be noted ? 31. What 
Lakes can you name in Greece ? 32. What is the gener^ character of the rivers 



GKAECIA. 13 

The Peneus, Salamhria^ emptying into the Sinus Thermai- 
cus: 5., the Achelous, Aspro-potamo^ between Acar- 
nania and Aetolia, emptying into the Mare Ionium : c, the 
Cephissus, Mauro-potamo^ which flows into lake Copais: 
c?., the Alpheus, JRufia^ which empties into the Mare 
Ionium: 6., the Eurotas, Jri ov JBasilo-potamo^ empties 
into the Sinus Laconicus : the Sperchius, JEllada^ in 
Thessaly, empties into the Mahacus Sinus. We shall now 
proceed to describe these, as well as some others, more 
particularly. 

33. The Achelous, Aspro-potamo, one of the largest, 
by some considered the largest, of the rivers of Greece, 
rises in Mt. Pindus, flows through Dolopia, through the 
territory of the Agraei and the Amphilochi and the Acar- 
nanian plain, and then empties, an impetuous torrent, into 
the sea, where the cluster of small islands called Echi- 
nades, now Isole Cnrzolari, is said to have been formed 
by the great quantity of alluvium brought down by its 
current. It often causes serious inundations in the whole 
region through which it flows. 

34. The god of this river is described, in the mythologi- 
cal legend, as the son of Oceanus and Tethys, and as the 
eldest of 3,000 brothers. He fought with Hercules for 
Deianira, but was conquered in the contest. He then took 
the form of a bull, but was again overcome by Hercules, 
who deprived him of one of his horns, which, however, he 
recovered by giving up the horn of Amalthea. According 
to Ovid the Naiads changed the horn which Hercules took 
from Achelous into the horn of plenty. 

35. Evenus, now Fidhar% formerly called Lycormas, 
the chief river of Aetolia, rises in Mt. Oeta, and flows with 
a rapid stream through Aetolia into the sea, 10 miles W. 
of Antirrhium. 

36. According to the legend the Centaur Kessus, who 
carried Deianira across this river, was, when he attempted 
to run away with her, shot by Hercules "with a poisoned 
arrow, which afterw^ards became the cause of the death of 
Hercules himself 

37. The Plistus, Xero-potamo^ a small river in Phocis, 
rises in Mt. Parnassus, not half a mile from Delphi, where 



of Greece ? Name and point out the most important, 33. "What and where was 
the Achelous? What is it said to have formed? 84. What legend is connected 
with this river? 35. Where and what was the Evenus? 36. What legend 
is connected with this river ? 37. Where does the Plistus rise, and into what 



14: AJSrCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

it receives the small stream Cast alia, and falls into the 
Crissaean gulf near Cirrha. 

38. The Sinus Crissaeus, now Gulf of Salona, is on 
the N". side of the Sin. Corinthiacus, between Phocis and 
the territory of the Locri Ozolae. 

39. The Larissus or Larisus, now Jfana, or i2^sso- 
a small river forming the boundary between Achaia and 
Elis, rises in Mt. Scollis, and flows into the Ionian Sea. 

40. The Peneus, now Gastuni^ a river in Elis, rises on 
the frontiers of Arcadia, flows by the town of Elis, and falls 
into the sea between the promontories Chelonites or Che- 
lonatas and Ichthys. There is a much larger and more 
celebrated river of the same name in Thessaly. 

41. The most celebrated river of Elis, and at the same 
time, the largest river of Peloponnesus, was the Alpheus, 
now Alfeo^ JRofeo^ I^yfo-, or Rufia^ but chiefly known by 
this last form of the name, Kufia. 

42. This river rises a little S. W. of Tegea in Arcadia, 
shortly afterwards sinks under ground, appears again near 
Asea, and then traverses the remainder of Arcadia, and 
flows through Elis. Other authorities, however, thus de- 
scribe its course. It rises at Phylace, on the S. frontier 
of Arcadia, shortly afterwards loses itself under ground, 
appears again near Asea, and then mingles its waters with 
those of the Eurotas. After flowing 2 J miles, the two rivers 
disappear under ground ; the Aljoheus again rises at Pegae 
or Pagae in Arcadia, and, increased by many affluents, 
flows S". W. through Arcadia and Elis, not far from Olym- 
pia, and falls into the Ionian Sea. 

43. The subterranean descent of the river, which is 
confirmed by modern travellers, gave rise to the story of 
the river-god Alpheus and the nymph Aretliiisa. The lat- 
ter, pursued by Alpheus, was changed by Artemis into the 
fountain of Arethusa in the island of Ortygia at Syracuse ; 
but the god contmued to pursue her under the sea, and at- 
tempted to mingle his stream with the fountain in Ortygia. 
Hence it was said that a cup thrown into the Alpheus 
would appear again in the fountain of Arethusa in Ortygia. 

44. The Ladon, Rufia^ accounted the most beautiful 
stream in Peloponnesus, rose near Clitor and fell into the 

does it empty? 38. Where is the Crissaean gulf? 39. Where is the Laris- 
Bua, and where does it empty ? 40. Where is the Peneus, and what more cele- 
brated river is there of the same name ? 41. What Vas the most celebrated river 
of Elis, and at the same time the chief river of Peloponnesus ? 42. Where did 
it rise, and what was its course 1 43. What legend is connected with the course of 



GKAECIA. 15 

Alpheus, between Heraea and Phrixa. Its modern name 
is given as Rufia, the same as that of the Alpheus ; but 
Col. Leake asserts that this name belongs only to the stream 
formed by the combined waters of the Alpheus and the 
Ladon, and that above their junction the latter is usually 
called the River of Karitena. 

45. The ]Sr e d a , now Buzi^ rises in Arcadia in Mt. Cerau- 
sion, a branch of Mt. Lycaeus, and falls into the Ionian 
Sea, after forming the boundary between Arcadia and 
Messenia, and between Messenia and Elis. 

46. The Pamisus, now Pirnatza^ was the chief river 
of Messenia : it rises m the E. part of the country, 5 miles 
E. of Ithome, flows first S. W., and then through the Mes- 
senian plain, and falls into the Messenian gulf. The Pamisus 
runs through the cultivated land with a clear stream, and 
is navigable to ships more than a mile from the sea : sea- 
fish ascend into it, chiefly in the spring. 

47. The Eurotas, now Vasili JPotamo, also written 
Basili-potamo, the chief river in Laconia, but not navi- 
gable, rises in Mt. Boreum in Arcadia, then disappears un- 
der the earth, rises again near Sciritis, and flows south- 
wards, passing Sparta on the E., through a narrow and 
fruitful valley, into the Laconian gulf. 

48. The Inachus, now Banitza^ the chief river in Ar- 
golis, rises in Mt. Lyrceus on the border of Arcadia, flows in 
a south-easterly direction, receives near Argos the Chara- 
drus, now Xerias^ and falls into the Sinus Argolicus, S. of 
Argos. 

49. The name Cephisus or Cephissus was borne by six dif- 
ferent rivers in Greece. Of these, the two most important 
were, the one in Phocis and Boeotia, the other in Attica. 

50. The Cephissus, which was the chief river in Pho- 
cis and Boeotia, rises near Lilaea at the foot of Mt. Par- 
nassus, in Phocis, flows through a fertile valley in Phocis 
and Boeotia, and falls into the lake Copais, which is hence 
called Cephisis in the Iliad. 

51. The Cephissus Atticus (so called to distinguish 
it from another small stream of the same name in Eleusis 

this river ? 44. Where was the Ladon, what -was it accounted, and what is said of 
its modern name? 45. Where was the Neda, and what did it form? 46. What 
and where is the Pamisus, and falls into what ? What is the character of its 
water, how far navigable? 47. What and where is the Eurotas, what is its 
course and where does it empty? 48. What was the Inachus, rises where, takes 
what course, and empties where ? 49. How many rivers in Greece were called 
Cephissus, and where were they? 50. Describe the former of these two rivers 
more particularly. 51. Describe the second of these two rivers : how distinguish- 



16 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

and near the city of Eleusis), the largest river in Attica, 
rises in the W. slope of Mt. Pentelicus, and flows past 
Athens on the W. into the Sinus Saronicus, near Phalerum. 

52. The Ilissus, now Ilisse^ a small river Id Attica, 
rises on the N". slope of Mt. Hymettus, receives the brook 
Eridanus near the Lyceum outside the walls of Athens, 
then flows through the E. side of Athens, and loses itself 
in the marshes in the Athenian plain. In Plato's time it 
appears to have been a perennial stream, but it is now 
usually dry, as its waters are drawn ofi* to supply the city. 

53. The Asopus, now Asopo^ in Boeotia, forming the 
boundary between the territories of Plataeae and Thebae, 
takes its rise in Mt. Cithaeron, and after traversing the 
whole of southern Boeotia, crosses the N". W. corner of At- 
tica, and falls into the Euboean sea near Oropus, and not far 
from Delphinum, in Attica. Though generally a small and 
sluggish stream, after heavy rains it could not easily be 
forded. 

54. It was on the banks of the Asopus that the battle 
of Plataeae was fought, b. c. 479. 

55. The Ismenii^, a small river in Boeotia, rises in 
Mt. Cithaeron, flows through Thebae, and falls into the lake 
Hylika, Senzina or JLivadJii. The brook Dirce, so cele- 
brated in Theban story, flowed into the Ismenus. From 
this river Apollo was called Ismenius. His temple, the 
Ismenium, at which the festival of the Daphnephoria was 
celebrated, was situated outside the city of Thebae. 

56. The Sperchius or Spercheus, Elladha^ a river 
in the S. of Thessaly, which rises in Mt. Tymphrestus, runs 
in an easterly direction through the territory of the 
Aenianes, and through the district Malis, and falls into the 
innermost corner of the Sinus Maliacus. 

57. The Peneus, now Salamhria or Salympria^ the 
chief river of Thessaly, and one of the most important in 
all Greece, rises near Alalcomenae in Mt. Lacmon, a branch 
of Mt. Pindus, flows first S. E. and then N". E., and after 
receiving many affluents, of which the most important were 
the Enipeus or the Apidanus, the Lethaeus, and the, 

ed ? 52. What is the Ilissus, rises where, receives what, flows where, and whither, 
and what is Its present character ? 63. Where does the Asopus rise, forming what^ 
taking what course, ialling into what and where ? 54. For what is this stream noted 
in history? 55. Where was the Ismenus, and for what is it noted? 56. Where 
was the Sperchius, rising where, flowing through what district, emptied into 
what? 57. What was the most celebrated river in Thessaly, where does it rise, 
flows in what direction, receives what affluents, and after flowing through what, 



GEAECIA. IT 

Titaresius, forces its way through the vale of Tempe, 
"between Mt. Ossa and Mt. Olympus, into the Sinus Ther- 
maicus. Another of its tributaries was the Phoenix Sal- 
meniko^ in the S. W. 

58. The Enipeus, Fersaliti^ rises in the S. "W. in Mt. 
Othrys, and, according to some, flows into the Peneus,- after 
receiving the Apidanus near Pharsalus. We deem it more 
correct to regard this river as the affluent of the Apidanus, 
and the latter the tributary of the Peneus. 

59. The Apidanus, Vlacho lani^ rises in the S. E. in 
Mt. Othrys, and flowing in a N. W. course through the 
Thessalian plain, in the S. part of which, near Pharsa- 
lus, it receives the Enipeus. It empties into the Peneus. 

60. The Lethaeus, Jf>eres^■ or TriJcJcalino^ rises in Mt. 
Pindus, flows S. E. almost parallel with the Peneus, which 
it gradually approaches, and enters near the centre of 
Thessaly. 

61. The Titaresius, now JElassonitiJco or Xeraghi^ also 
called Eur opus, rises in Mt. Titar us, flows through the 
country of the Perrhaebi, and falls into the Peneus S. E. of 
Phalanna. Its waters were impregnated with an oily sub- 
stance, whence it was said to be a branch of the infernal 
Styx. 

Ere we proceed to describe the divisions of Greece 
strictly so called, we shall here introduce a brief account of 
EpTrus, because of its important connection with Greece, 
since from it proceeded the Thessalians, and because from 
one of its tribes we have the name Graecia, Greece, and for 
the reason also, that, in later times, it was reckoned as one 
of the ten districts into which the north of Greece was 
divided. 

I.— ^j^lrMS. 

1. Epirus was bounded on the N". by lUyria and Mace- 
donia, on the E. by Thessaly, on the S. by Aetolia and the 
Sinus Ambracius, and on the W. by the Mare Ionium. 
The name means *''' mainland^'* and originated with the 
inhabitants of the neighboring islands. It is now called 
Albania. 

empties into what Sinus ? 58. Where does the Enipeus rise ? 59. Where did the 
Apidanus rise, and in what direction was its course? 60. Where does the Le- 
thaeus rise and in what direction does it flow? 61. The Titaresius, having what 
other name, rises where, flows through what, and enters the Peneus where ? 
Wha,t was the character of its waters, giving rise to what ? 

1. How was Epirus hounded, and what is the meaning of its name ? 2. What 



18 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

2. The chief rivers were a.\, the Achelous, Aspropo- 
tamo^ which traverses the valley immediately below Pin- 
dus : 5., the Arachthns or Aretho, Arta^ which, after a 
parallel course with that of the foregoing, discharges itself 
into the Sinus Ambracius : c, the Thyamis, Kalama^ 
forming the boundary between Thesprotia and the district 
of Cestryna, and flowing into the sea opposite Corcyra : 
d.^ the Acheron, a small river in Thesj^rotia, flowing 
through the lake Acherusia into the Mare Ionium : it is 
noteworthy only because it was reputed to communicate 
with the infernal regions. It is now called Suit. 

3. The original population appears to have been Pelas- 
gic ; and the ancient oracle of Dodona in the country 
was always regarded as of Pelasgic origin. These Pelas- 
gians were subsequently mingled with Illyrians, who at 
various times invaded Epirus and settled in the country. 
Epirus contained 14 difierent tribes. Of these the most 
important were the Chaones in the N". "W., the Thesproti 
in the S. W., and the Molossi in the interior, who gave 
their names to the three principal divisions of the country : 
CHAo^aA, Thespeotia and Molossis. The district about 
the Ambracian Gulf formed an independent State imder 
the Coruithian town of Ambracia. 

4. The chief towns were, a., Dodona, in Molossis^ at 
the S. extremity of Lake Pambotis, now lake oi lanina^ 
the seat of the ancient oracle of Jupiter: 5., Pan do si a, 
in Thesprotia, on the Acheron: c, Ambracia, now Arta^ 
a flourishing town on the Arachthus, about 10 miles from 
the gulf, founded by Corinth ; and Nicopolis, the ruins of 
which are called Paleoprevyza^ built by Augustus, in mem- 
ory of the battle of Actium, near the neck of the gulf. 

5. The important island of Corcyra, universally re- 
garded by the ancients as the Homeric Scheria, the abode 
of the enterprisiag and sea-loving Phaeacians, lay opposite 
the coast of Epirus, and is now called^(7o?y^i^. Its two 
chief towns were Corcyra, the modern town oi^Corfii, in 
the middle of the E. coast ; and Cassiope, IN", of the former. 
The island is historically famous from its having been one 
of the proximate causes of the Peloponnesian war. 

and where were the chief rivers 1 3. What were the inhabitants of the country, 
how many tribes were there, which were the most important, giving name to 
what? 4. What were the chief towns, and where situated? 5. What important 
island lay opposite the coast of Epirus ? 



GKAECIA. 19 



■Thessalia. 



- 1. The s sail a is said to have been originally known by 
the names of Pyrrha^ Aemonia, and Aeolis. The former 
two appellations belong to mythology : the latter refers to 
the period when the country was inhabited by Aeolians, 
who were afterwards expelled by the Thessalians, about 60 
years after the Trojan war. 

2. This largest division of Greece was bounded on the 
I^. by the Cambunian Mountains, which separated it from 
Macedonia : on the W. by Mt. Pindus, which separated it 
from Epirus : on the E. by the Aegaean Sea ; and on the 
S. by the Maliacus Sinus and Mt. Oeta, which separated it 
from Locris, Phocis and Aetolia. 

3. Thessaly was early divided into the four districts of 
Hestiaeotis, Pelasgiotis, Thessaliotis, andPhthio- 
tis. They comprised, however, only the great Thessalian 
plain lying between the Cambunian Mts. in the IsT., Mt. 
Othrys on the S., Mt. Pindus on the W., and Mts. Ossa and 
Pehon on the E. Besides them we find mention of 4 other 
districts, viz. Magnesia, Dolopia, Oetaea, and Mails. 
Thus Thessaly was divided into eight districts. Perrhaebia 
in the N". was not properly a district, since Perrhaebi 
was the name of a Pelasgic people settled in Hestiaeotis and 
Pelasgiotis. 

4. The Thessalians were a Thesprotian tribe. Under the 
guidance of leaders who were said to have been descendants 
of Hercules, they invaded the W. part of the country, 
and drove out or reduced to subjection the ancient 
Aeohan inhabitants. Spreading afterwards over the other 
parts of the country, they compelled the Perrhaebi, Mag- 
netes, Achaean Phthiotae, etc., to submit to their authority, 
and pay them tribute. 

5. The mountains which form, in part the boundaries 
of Thessalia, having been already named, we have now 
only the following few to mention: «., Homole Mons, 
still bearing the same name, the extreme point of Magnesia 
to the N., probably a portion of the chain of Ossa, and 
celebrated by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen- 



1. By -what names was Thessaly originally known ? 2. How was Thessaly 
bounded? 3. Into what districts was Thessaly divided ? 4. Where did the Thes- 
salians come from, invading Thessaly under what leaders, and subjugating whom ? 
5. Name and point out the chief mountains in Thessaly, and give the legends 



20 AITCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

tanrs and Lapithae, and a favorite haunt of Pan, who had ^ 
a sanctuary here : ^. OssaMons, now ITissovo, extending 
from the right bank of the Peneus along the Magnesian 
coast to the chain of Pelion. It was supposed that Ossa 
and Olympus were once united and rent asunder by an 
earthquake: c. Olympus Mons, now Elymbo^ Turk. 
Semavat JEv% i. e. Abode of the Celestials^ the S. E. part 
of the great chain of mountains which extends W. and E. 
from the Acroceraunian promontory on the Adriatic, to 
the Thermaic Gulf, and which formed the N". boundary of 
Greece Proper : in the more specific and ordinary use of 
the name, Olympus denotes the extreme E. part of the 
chain, which, striking off from the Cambunian Mts. to the 
S. E., skirts the slip of coast called Pieria, and forms at its 
termination the N. wall of the vale of Tempo. Its shape 
is that of a blunt cone, with its outline picturesquely 
broken by minor summits : its height is about 9,700 feet, 
and its chief summit is covered with perpetual snow. In 
the Greek mythology, Olympus was the chief seat of the 
third dynasty of gods, of which Zeus was the head. In 
the legend the giants are represented as piling Pelion upon 
Ossa, and both upon Olympus, (i. e., on the lower slopes,) 
in order to scale the ovpavos, heaven^ i. e. the summit of 
Olympus itself, the abode of the gods; c?., Pelion, more 
rarely Pelios Mons, in the district of Magnesia, a lofty 
range between lake Boebeis and the Pagasaeus Sinus, 
formed the promontories of Sepias and Aeantium. The 
connection of this mountain with the war of the giants 
with the gods has been already referred to. N'earits sum- 
mit was the cave of the Centaur Chiron, whose residence 
was probably placed here on account of the number of the 
medicinal plants which grew upon the mountain, since he 
was celebrated for his skill in medicine. 

6. In addition to the rivers of Thessaly already de- 
scribed, we only yet mention the Amphrysus, now Ar- 
myro^ a small stream flowing into the Pagasaean Gulf, 
noted chiefly because of the legend, that on its banks 
Apollo fed the herds of Admetus, whence ''^pastor ab Am- 
phryso,^^ Virg. Georg. iii. 2. 

PLACES IN THESSALY. 

T. Gomphi, a town in Hestiaeotis, near the left bank 



nnected -with them, giving an account, a., of Mt. Homole ; b. of Mt. Ossa : 
of Mt. Olympus : d. of Mt, Pelion. 6. Wliat and vrhere was the Amphrysus, 



GEAECIA. 21 

of the Pamisus, S. E. of Phaloria, was a strong fortress 
commanding the chief pass between IJbessaly and Epirus : 
it was taken and destroyed by Caesar, b. c. 48, but was 
afterwards rebuilt. It is now JEpiskopi. 

8. Trice a, subsequently Tricala, now TrihJcdla^ an 
ancient town in Hestiaeotis, was situated on the Lethaeus, 
K. of the Peneus, S. E. of Phaloria, K. E. of Gomphi. 
Homer represents it as governed by the sons of Aescu- 
lapius ; and it contained in later times a celebrated temple 
of this god. 

9. Pythium, in the E. part of Hestiaeotis, forming 
with Azorus and Doliche the Perrhaebian Tripolis, 
commanded an important defile leading from Thessaly into 
Macedonia through Perrhaebia. It was near the W. base 
of Mt. Olympus, and possessed a temple of Apollo (who 
was hence called Pythius), which seems to have been held 
in great veneration, as games were celebrated there in 
honor of the deity. 

10. Gonnus or Gonni, now-Zy^os^owo, an ancient and 
strongly fortified town of the Perrhaebi, on the river 
Peneus and at the entrance of the gorge of Tempe, 20 
miles N. of Larissa. Philip retired thither immediately 
after his defeat at Cynoscephalae. It was strongly fortified 
by Perseus (son of Philip V. of Macedon) in his first cam- 
paign against the Romans, who made no attempt to render 
themselves masters of this key of Macedonia. 

11. Tempe is a beautiful and romantic valley between 
Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through which the Peneus escapes 
into the sea. The lovely scenery of this glen is frequently 
described by the ancient poets and declaimers ; and it was 
also celebrated as one of the favorite haunts of Apollo, who 
had transplanted his laurel from this spot to Delphi. The 
whole valley is rather less than 5 miles in length, and opens 
gradually to the E. into a spacious plain. Tempe is also of 
great importance in history, as it is the only pass through 
which an army can invade Thessaly from the N". In some 
parts the rocks on each side of the Peneus approach so 
close to each other as only to leave room between them for 
the stream ; and the road is obliged to be cut out of the 
rock in the narrowest point. Tempe is the only channel 

and noted for what ? 7. VHiat and wTiere was GompM ? 8. Where was Tricca 
situated, and for what was it noted? 9. Where was Pythium, and how is it noted 
in mythology ? 10 Where was Gonnus, and how distinguished in history 1 11. 
Describe the vale of Tempe, and state for what it was celebrated. 12. Where was 



22 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

through whicli the waters of the Thessalian plain descend 
into the sea ; and it was the common opinion in antiquity 
that these waters had once covered the country with a vast 
lake, till an outlet was formed for them by some great con- 
vulsion in nature, which rent the rocks of Tempe asunder. 

12. Larissa, now the same, or JLarza^ an important 
town in Pelasgiotis, situated on the Peneus, in an exten- 
sive plain, was once the capital of the Pelasgi : it retained 
its importance under the Romans, and after the time of 
Constantine the Great, became the capital of the province 
of Thessaly. The name is peculiar to the Pelasgi, denoting, 
wherever it is found, a Pelasgic settlement, whence Larissa 
is called in mythology the daughter of Pelasgus. 

13. Cranon or Crannon, one of the most ancient and 
considerable towns in Pelasgiotis, was near Larissa, to the 
S. "W". Thophrastus speaks of a spring near this place re- 
markable for the property of warming wine when mixed 
with it, and which retained the heat thus communicated for 
two or three days. This town is now Hadjilar. 

14. Scotussa, now Supli, a very ancient town in Pelas- 
giotis, near the source of the Onchestus, S. E. of Larissa, 
was not far from the hill Cynoscephalae, rendered 
memorable by the victory gained there by the Roman 
consul T. Quintius Flamininus over Philip Y. of Macedon, 
B. c. 197. 

15. Pherae, now Valestino^ one of the most ancient 
and important cities of Thessaly, in Pelasgiotis, in the S. E. 
of the Pelasgian plain, W. of Mt. Pelion, S. W. of lake 
Boebeis, and about 11 miles from its port-town Pagasae, is 
celebrated in mythology as the residence of Admetus, and 
in history on account of its tyrants who extended their 
power over nearly the whole of Thessaly. 

16. The fountains of Hyperea and Messeis, celebrated 
by Homer and other poets, are generally supposed to have 
belonged to this ancient city. 

17. Pharsalus, now Pharsa or Fersala^ in the district 
Thessaliotis, not far from the frontiers of Phthiotis, W. of 
the river Enipeus, and on the N. slope of Narthacius Mons, 
was divided into an old and a new city, and contained a 

Larissa, and what was its rank? To whom was the name peculiar? 13. What 
and where was Cranon ? In its neighhorhood was what spring, possessing what 
property? 14, Where was Scotussa.; what famous site was in its neig hhorhood, 
noted for what ? 15. What and where was Pherae, and for what was it celehrated 
both in mythology and history ? 16. What celebrated fountains are supposed to 
have belonged to tllis city ? 17. Where was Pharsalus, and for what is it famous ? 



GEAECIA. 23 

strongly fortified acropolis. !N"ear Pharsalus was fought, 
June 6tli, B. c. 48, the decisive battle between Caesar and 
Pompey, which made Caesar master of the Roman world. 
It is frequently called the battle of Pharsalia, this being 
the name of the territory of the town. 

18. Aphetae, now the seaport town Fetio^ according 
to Cramer, others giving Trikeri as its modern name, at 
the S. W. extremity of Magnesia, on the neck of the Sin. 
Pagasaeus, is said to have derived its name from the depar- 
ture {d(^t77/xt) of the Argonauts from this place on their 
voyage to Colchis. 

19. Thaumaci, now Thomoko^ in the N". W. of 
Phthiotis, to the S. W. of Pharsalus, is said to have de- 
rived its name from the singularity of its situation, and the 
astonishment produced on the minds of travellers upon first 
reaching it. " You arrive," says Livy, " after a very diffi- 
cult and rugged route over hill and dale, when you sud- 
denly open on an immense plain like a vast sea, which 
stretches below as far as the eye can reach." A recent 
traveller, Mr. Dodwell, says : " The position is strong ; and 
it must at all times have been a place of importance. The 
view from this place is one of the most wonderful and ex- 
tensive I ever beheld." 

20. Magnesia, the most easterly district of Thessaly, 
was a long narrow slip of country, extending from the 
Peneus on the IST. to and nearly round the Pagasaeus Sin. 
on the S. and bounded on the W. by the great Thessalian 
plain. It was a mountainous country, as it comprehended 
the mountains Pelion, Ossa, and Homole. Its inhabitants, 
the Magnetes, are said to have founded two cities in Asia 
Minor, viz. Magnesia ad Sipylum, in the N". W. of Lydia, 
and Magnesia ad Maeandrum in the S. W. of Lydia. 

21. lolcos, Lat. form lolcus, was an ancient town in 
Magnesia, at the head of the Pagasaeus Sin., not quite a 
mile from the sea. It was celebrated in mythology as the 
birthplace and residence of Pelias and Jason. 

22. Pagasae, called by the Romans Pagasa-ae, now 
'Volo^ was on the coast of Magnesia, and on the bay called 
after it Sinus Pagasaeus or Pagasicus, Gulf of Yolo. 
It was the port of lolcos, and afterwards of Pherae, and is 

18. What and where was Aphetae, and why was it so called ? 19. Where was 
Thaumaci, and for what reason was it so called? 20. What and where is Mag- 
nesia ? Its inhabitants are said to have founded what colonies ? 21. Where was 
lolcos, and with what legend is it connected ? 22. Where was Pagasae, giving 
name io what, noted in mythology for what, and from what was its own nam© de- 



24 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

celebrated in mytliology as the place where Jason built the 
ship Argo. Hence some of the ancients derived its name 
from TTYjywiJii] but others connected the name with the 
fountains [Tn^yal) in the neighborhood. 

23. Demetrias, now Goritza^ in Magnesia, on the 
innermost recess of the Pagasaen gulf, a short distance S. 
E. of Pagasae, was founded, and named after himself, by 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, and peopled by the inhabitants of 
lolcos and the surrounding towns ; it soon became one of 
the most important towns in the K. of Greece, and in a 
military point of view was allowed to rank among the prin- 
cipal fortresses of the country. It was, in fact, most ad- 
vantageously placed for defending the approaches to the 
defile of Tempe, as well on the side of the plains as on that 
of the mountains. Its maritime situation also, both from 
its proximity to the island of Euboea, Attica, the Pelopon- 
nesus,-the Cyclades, and the opposite shores of Asia, ren- 
dered it a most important acquisition to the sovereigns of 
Macedonia. Hence Phihp, the son of Demetrius, is said to 
have termed it one of the chains of Greece. 

24. Anticyra, more anciently Anticirrha, was situ- 
ated on the Sperchius, not far from its mouth. This town, 
as was also another of the same name in Phocis, was cele- 
brated for producing the genuine hellebore, the chief 
remedy in antiquity for madness : hence the proverb 
'AvTiKijopas o-e 8et, when a person acted senselessly, and 
ISTaviget Anticyram (Hor, Sat. II. 3. 166). 

25. Lamia, Zeitun or Zeitun% in Phthiotis, IN", (or a 
little E. of N.) of Anticyra, was situated on the small river 
Achelous, and a little over 6 miles inland from the Maliac 
gulf, on which it possessed a harbor called Phalara. It 
has given its name to the war (the Lamiac War) which 
was carried on by the confederate Greeks against Antipater 
after the death of Alexander, b. c. 323. The confederates, 
under the command of Leosthenes the Athenian, defeated 
Antipater, who took refuge in Lamia, where he was be- 
sieged for some months. 

26. Trachis or Trachin, also called Heraclea 
Trachiniae, or Heraclea Phthiotidis, or simply 
Heraclea, S. of Anticyra, in the district Malis, was the 
place to which Hercules retired, after having committed an 

rived? 23. Where was Demetrias ; bywliom was it founded and named; and 
what were the advantages of its situation ? 24. Where was Anticyra, and for 
what was it noted ? 25. Where was Lamia, and for what is it noted in history? 
26. Where was Trachis, and what legend is connected with it ? 27. Point out and 



GEAECIA. 25 

invoiuntaiy murder, as we learn from Sophocles, who has 
made it the scene of one of his deepest tragedies, the 
Trachiniae^ i. e. " The Trachinian Wbme?i.^^ 

27. Thermopylae, often called simply Pylae {©ep/xo- 
TTvXaL, IIvAai), i. e. the JTot Gates or the Gates, a celebrated 
pass leading from Thessaly into Locris, lay between Mt. 
Oeta and an inaccessible morass, forming the edge of the 
Maliac gulf. At one end of the pass the mountain ap- 
proached so close to the morass as to leave room for only a 
single carriage between : this narrow entrance formed the 
W. gate of Thermopylae. About a mile to the E., the 
mountain again approached close to the sea, near the 
Locrian town of Alpeni, thus formmg the E. gate of Ther- 
mopylae. The space between these two gates was wider 
and more open, and was distinguished by its al6undant flow 
of hot springs, which were sacred to Hercules : hence the 
name of the place. Thermopylae was the only pass by 
which an enemy could penetrate from northern into south- 
ern Greece, whence its great importance in Grecian history. 

28. Thermopylae is especially celebrated on account 
of the heroic defence of Leonidas and his 300 Spartans 
against the mighty host of Xerxes, b. c. 480. — This moun- 
tain-pass commenced from the neighborhood of Trachis, 
ascended the gorge of the river Asopus and the hill called 
Anopaea, then crossed the crest of Oeta, and descended in 
the rear of Thermopylae near the town of Alpeni. 

29. The line of coast has so much advanced by the allu- 
vial deposits of the Sperchius, that the pass no longer ex- 
ists. But the Thermae, or hot springs, are still there, issu- 
ing from two mouths at the foot of the limestone precipices 
of Mt. Oeta, half way between Bodonitza and Thermopylae. 
The temperature of the water is 111° of Fahrenheit at the 
mouth of the spring. It is impregnated with carbonic acid, 
lime, salt, and sulphur, and is very transparent. The 
ground round the springs yields a hollow sound like the 
solfaterra at ISTaples. 

30. The highest summit of Oeta was, according to Livy, 
named Callidromus; it was occupied by Cato mth a 
body of troops in the battle fought at the pass of Thermo- 
pylae, between the Romans under Acihus Glabrio, and the 
army of Antiochus, b. c. 191, and owing to this manoeuvre 
the latter was entirely routed. 

descTibe Thermopylae. 28. For what is Thermopylae especially celebrated? 
29. What is the present condition of the pass ? 30. How is Thermopylae famous 
in Roman history ? 

2 



26 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



1. Acarnania, fhe most westerly province of Greece, 
was bounded on the IsT. by the Sinus Ambracius, on the W. 
and S. W. by tbe Ionian Sea, on the N". E. by Amphilochia, 
which is sometimes included in Acarnania, and on the E. 
by Aetolia, from which, at a later time it was separated by 
the Achelous : it had previously encroached on the Aeto- 
lian territory. The name does not occur in Homer. 

2. In the most ancient times the land was inhabited by 
theTaphii, Teleboae and Leleges, and subsequently 
by the C u r e t e s , emigrants from Aetolia. At a later time 
a colony froi5i Argos, said to have been led by Acaenan, the 
son of Alcmaeon, settled in the country. In the seventh 
century b. c. the Corinthians founded several towns on the 
coast. 

3. The Acarnanians first emerge from obscurity at the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian war, b. c. 431, in which, as 
the allies of the Athenians, they rendered the latter essen- 
tial services. They were, at that early period, a rude peo- 
ple, living by piracy and robbery, and they always remained 
behind the rest of the Greeks in civilization and refinement. 
They were good slingers, and are praised for their fidelity 
and courage. 

4. There were two famous promontories on the coast, 
Actium and Leucate. Actium Pr. was at the en- 
trance of the Ambracian Gulf; off this point Augustus 
gained the celebrated victory over Antony and Cleopatra, 
on September 2, b. c. 31. At the S. extremity of Leucadia, 
(now an island), was the promontory variously called, pro- 
bably from the white color of the rock, Leucas, Leu- 
catas, Leucates, or Leucate, now Cape Ducato^ on 
which was a temple of Apollo, who hence had the surname 
Leucadius. A singular expiatory rite annually performed 
here gave rise to the well-known story, that lovers leaped 
from this rock, in order to seek relief from the pangs of 
love. Thus Sappho is said to have leapt down from this 
rock, when in love with Phaon ; but this well-known story 
vanishes at the first approach of criticism. 

1. How was Acarnania bounded ? 2. Who were its first inhabitants, and what 
colonies came in later ? 3. When do the Acarnanians appear in history, and what 
sort of people were they ? 4. What noted Promontories were on the coast, and 



GEAECIA. 27 

ISLANDS OEF THE COAST OP ACAENANIA. 

5. Leucas or Leucadia, now Santa Maura, o^ th.Q 
W. coast, about 20 miles in length, and from 5 to 8 miles 
in breadth, derived its name from the numerous calcareous 
hills which cover its surface. It was originally united to 
the mainland at its Il^J". E. extremity by a narrow isthmus. 
Homer speaks of it as a Peninsula, and mentions its well- 
fortified town ISTericus. 

6. The Echinades Insulae, now the islands of 
Curzolari, were a group of small islands opposite the 
mouth of the Achelous. Cramer calls them " rocks, which 
in process of time have for the most part become connected 
with the land by the alluvial deposits of the muddy waters 
of the river. " Dr. Smith says that " they are a group of 
small islands * * * , said to have been formed by the alluvial 
deposits of the Achelous. " They appear to have derived 
their name from their resemblance to the Echinus or sea- 
urchin. 

7. The largest of these islands was Dulichium. It 
is mentioned more than once in the Odyssey as being well 
peopled and extensive, and from it Meges, son of Phyleus, 
went to the Trojan war. At the present day it is united 
to the mainland. 

8. The Echinades being of little importance, we name 
the following as the principal islands off Acarnania: 1, 
Ithaca, now ThiaM ; 2, Cephallenia, now Cephalo- 
nia; 3, Zacynthus, now Zante ov Zacyntho ; 4, Te- 
leboae or Taphiae Insulae, now Telboides. These four, 
together with three others, viz., 1, Leucas, now Santa 
Maura; 2, Paxos, now Paxo ; and 3, Cythera, now 
Gerigo / in all, seven islands, now form what is called the 
Ionian Republic, dependent on Great Britain. Although 
some of these islands do not lie off the coast of Acarnania, 
we deem it most convenient to connect them together, and 
to introduce in this place all the noteworthy islands off the 
W. coast of Greece. 

9. Ithaca, now ThiaJci, celebrated as the birth-place 
of Ulysses, lies directly S. of Leucadia, from which it is dis- 
tant about six miles, and is separated from Cephallenia by 

for what are they celebrated ? 5. What and where was the island of Leucadia ? 
6. Where and what were the Echinades Insulae 1 7. Which was the principal 
one of these islands, and for what is it noted? 8. Name the principal islands off 
the coast of Acarnania, and state what they now form. 9, Where was Ithaca, noted 



28 AITCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

a channel about 3 miles wide. The island is 14 miles long, 
and 4 in its greatest breadth. The general aspect of the 
island is that of extreme barrenness, ruggedness and asper- 
ity, and there are not 100 yards of continuous level 
ground on it, warranting the expression of Cicero that 
IJlysses loved his country " non quia larga, sed quia sua. " 
The scenery, however, is rendered strikhig by the bold 
and broken outHne of mountains, promontories and bays, 
while the openings of the narrow valleys to the sea are 
wooded with olives, orange or almond trees, or covered 
with vineyards. 

10. The climate of Ithaca is the healthiest of the Seven 
Islands, and the inhabitants are famous for their longevity. 

11. The island is divided into two parts by a deep bay 
which enters it on the E. side, so that the two parts are 
connected only by a narrow isthmus not more than half a 
mile across. This gulf presents a magnificent spectacle, for 
it branches out into arms and bays, which are sheltered by 
lofty hiUs and promontories of rock. 

12. In each of the two parts into which the island is thus 
divided there is a mountain ridge of considerable height, 
the one in the N". called N^eritum, now ^^zoz, and the 
one in the S., Xeium, now Stefano. 

13. The city of Ithaca, the residence of Ulysses, was 
situated on a precipitous, conical hill, now called Aeto^ or 
" eagle's cliff, " occupying the whole breadth of the isthmus 
mentioned above. The acropohs, or castle of Ulysses, 
crowned the extreme summit of the mountain, and is de- 
scribed by a modern traveller as " about as black and 
dreary a sjoot as can weU be imagined for a princely resi- 
dence. " It is at the foot of Mt. Neium, and is hence de- 
scribed by Telemachus as "Under l!^eium," ^lOdKr]<s ^Trovrfcov. 
The walls of the ancient city are in many places well pre- 
served. 

14. The port which Homer calls Phorcys, and de- 
scribes so accurately, is now Afrihis JBay : another haven, 
calle d Rheithron, situated aj^parently imder Mt. Neion, 
is now the Gulf of 3Iolo. 

15. Cephallenia, called by Homer Same or Samos, 
the largest island in the Ionian sea, was separated from 

as what, -wliat is its general aspect ? 10. What is the climate of Ithaca, making 
its inhabitants famous for what? 11. How and hy what is Ithaca divided? 
12. WTiat and where were the chief mountains of Ithaca ? 13. What city was 
there and where, and where was the acropolis of Ulyeses ? 14. What ports had 



GEAECIA. 29 

Ithaca on the E. by a narrow channel. It is now Cephor 
Ionia. 

16. The island is very mountainous, and the highest 
mountain, called Aenos, now Monte Nero, ov M. Elato^ 
on which stood a temple of Zeus, rises more than 4,000 feet 
above the sea. 

17. Cephallenia was a tetrapolis, containing the four 
towns. Same, Pale or Palle, Cranii, and Proni or 
Pronesus. It never attained political importance. In the 
Persian wars the inhabitants of Pale are alone mentioned. 
In the Peloponnesian war Cephallenia surrendered to the 
Athenians. Same, the only town in the island mentioned 
by Homer, and hence' probably the most ancient and im- 
portant, ventured to oppose the Romans, but was taken by 
M. Fulvius, B. o. 189. 

18. Zacynthus, now Zante^ to the S. of Cephallenia, 
with a large and flourishing town upon the E. coast, the 
citadel of which was called Psophis, was celebrated in 
antiquity for its pitch wells, which were visited by Herod- 
otus, and which still suj)ply a large quantity of bitumen. 
About 100 tons of bitumen are at the present day annually 
extracted from these wells. 

19. Zacynthus, inhabited by a Greek population at an 
early period, is said to have derived its name from Zacyn- 
thus, a son of Dardanus, who colonized the island from 
Psophis in Arcadia ; and according to an ancient tradition, 
the Zacynthians founded the town of Saguntum in Spain. 

20. The Taphiae Insulae were a number of small 
islands between the coasts of Acarnania and Leucadia. 
They were also called the Teleboae Insulae, and their in- 
habitants were in like manner named Taphii (Ta(^tot) or 
Teleboae {TrjXepoai) . 

21. The largest of these islands is called Taphos 
by Homer, but Taphius or Taphiusa by later writers. 
These islands are mentioned in Homer as the haunts of no- 
torious pirates, and are celebrated in mythology on account 
of the war carried on between them and Electryon, king 
of Mycenae. 



Ithaca ? 15. Cephallenia, how called by Homer, was what and where ? 16. What 
is the nature of the surface, and what the highest mountain ? 19. What was 
Cephallenia: what were its four towns, and what is said of them ? 18. Where was 
Zacynthus, having what town ? for what was the island celebrated? 19. What 
legends ai-e there respecting Zachinthus? 20. Where were the Taphiae Insulae, 
called also by what other name 1 21. Name the principal islands of this group, 
and state for what the islands were noted. 22, What are the present names of 



30 ANCIENT GEOaEAPHT. 

22. This group is now called the Telhoides islands^ and 
the present name of Taphos is llegcmisi, 

PLACES IX ACAE2>rANIA. 

23. The chief city of Acarnania was Stratus, a little 
more than a mile W. of the Achelous. It was a strongly 
fortified town, and commanded the ford of the Achelous on 
the high road from Aetolia to Acarnania. Hence it was 
a place of military imj^ortance, and was, at an early period, 
taken possession of by the AetoHans. 

24. Argos Amphilochicum, the chief town of the 
Amphilochi, was situated on the Amhracian gulf, and 
founded by the Argive Amphilochus. 

25. Another town of the Amphilochi was O Ip a e , At'api, 
on. a height close to the shore of the Ambracian gulf, about 
3 miles from Argos. It would have remained unknown 
but for the decisive victory gained here by the Acarnanians 
and Amphilochians, under the command of Demosthenes, 
the Athenian general, b. c. 426, over the Ambraciots and 
Peloponnesians. 

26. Alyzia or Alyzea, the ruins of which are in the 
valley of Kaudili^ was a town of some note, near the sea, 
opposite Leucas, with a harbor and a temple both sacred to 
Hercules. The temple contained one of the works of Ly- 
sip2)us, a group representing the labors of Hercules, which 
the Romans carried off. 

27. Oeniadae (the site, perhaps at (S'^arc^ay&o, has not 
yet been ascertained), situated on the Achelous, near its 
mouth, was surrounded by marshes caused by the over- 
flowing of the river, which thus protected it from hostile 
attacks. It was called in earher times Erysiche, audits 
inhabitants Erysichaei; and it probably derived its later 
name fr'om the mythical Oeneus, the grandfather of Dio- 
medes. Unlike the other cities of Acarnania, Oeniadae 
espoused the cause of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian 
war. 

28. This may be the most suitable place to mention the 
Strophades Insiilae, formerly called Plotae, now called 

the group, and of Taphos ? 23. What Tvas the chief to\ni of Acarnania, and for 
what "was it noted ? 24. What and -where was Argos Amphilochicum, fomided 
by whom ? 25. What other town of the Amphilochi can you mention, and what 
makes it noteworthy ? 26. What and where was Alyzia, and for what was it cele- 
brated 1 27. Where was Oeniadae, how situated, formerly how called, deriving 
its later name from whom, espousing what side in the Peloponnesian war? 
28. WTiat two small islands are S. of Zacynthus, and for what are they remark- 
able? 



GKAECIA. 31 

Str.Dfadia and Strivali^ two islands in the Ionian Sea, due 
S. izom the eastern extremity of Zacynthus. They are re- 
markable only in connection with the mythological legend, 
that the Harpies were pursued to these islands by the sons 
of Boreas ; and it was from the circumstance of the latter 
returning (o-rpec^w) from these islands after the pursuit, that 
they are supposed to have obtained the name of Strophades. 

4. — Met&lim^ 

1. Aetolia was bounded on the W. by Acarnania, 
from which it was separated by the Achelous, on the N". by 
Epirus and Thessaly, on the S. E. by the Locri Ozolae, and 
on the S. by the entrance to the Corinthian gulf. It was 
divided into two parts : Old Aetolia, from the Achelous to 
the Evenus and Calydon, and ^ew Aetolia, or the Acquired, 
{iTTLKrrjTos,) from the Evenus and Calydon to the Ozolian 
Locrians. 

2. The country was originally inhabited by Curetes and 
Leleges : their country was subsequently invaded by the 
Aeolians, a Thessalian tribe, when these were expelled from 
their original settlements, and it was then called Aeolis ; 
but a more complete change was effected by Aetolus, the 
son of Endymion, who arrived from Elis, in Peloponnesus, 
at the head of an army, and, having defeated the Curetes 
in several actions, forced them to abandon their countryj 
to which the conqueror gave the name of Aetolia, 

3. On the coast the country is level and fruitful, but in 
the interior mountainous and unproductive. The moun- 
tains contained many wild beasts, and were celebrated in 
mythology for the hunt of the Calydonian boar, and the 
exploits of Meleager and Tydeus, with those of other Ae- 
tolian warriors of the heroic age. 

PLACES IN AETOLIA. 

4. Conope or Conopa, on the left bank of the Achel- 
ous, was advantageously situated for crossing that river. 
Strabo insinuates that it was, at first, an inconsiderable 
place, until Arsinoe, the sister and wife of Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus, erected there a large city, which bore her name. 
Authorities differ as regards the site of. this city ; but it 

1, How was Aetolia Tbounded, and how divided? 2. By what people was 
Aetolia first inhabited, and how did it obtain its name ? 3. What is the face of 
the country, and for what were the moiantains celebrated ? 4. Where was Conope, 



82 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

seems to answer to that of Angela Castro, where consider- 
able ruins are pointed out in modern maps, ^ear it flowed 
the small stream Cyathus, JSTescMo. 

5. E. of the Achelous, and thence extending two-thirds 
across the S. half of the country, was Lake Conope, 
which Ovid (Metam. YII. 371 and 380) calls Hyrie. It is 
also called Lysimachia Lacus, now Lake Zygos or An- 
gelocastro. Here also various discrepancies remain to he 
reconciled. 

6. Calydon on the Evenus, situated on a rocky height, 
was said to have been founded by Aetolus or his son Caly- 
don. The surrounding country produced wine, oil, and 
corn: It is famed in Grecian story, and the theme of poe- 
try from Homer to Statins. It was in the mountains in its 
neighborhood that the celebrated hunt of the Calydonian 
boar took place. 

V. The r ma or Thermum was some distance E. of 
Stratus, (in Acarnania,) and situated in one of the wildest 
and roughest regions in Aetoha, which could be reached 
only by an exceedingly steep and craggy road, rendered in 
some iDlaces most perilous by the formidable precipices 
which lined it on either side. So remote, indeed, was its 
situation, and so difficult the approach to it, that it was con- 
sidered inaccessible, and therefore deemed the citadel of all 
Aetoha. It was here that the assemblies for deciding the 
elections of magistrates were held, as weR as the most splen- 
did festivals and commercial meetings. Hence the place 
was stored, not only with abundance of provisions and neces- 
saries of life, but ^vith the most costly furniture and uten- 
sils of every kind adapted for entertainments. Philij) IH. 
of Macedon, (b. c. 357) in his famous expedition into Aeto- 
lia, during the Social War, took the city and gave it up to 
pillage. The invaders did not spare even the temples, but, 
in revenge for the excesses committed by the Aetolians 
at Dium and Dodona, defaced more than 2,000 statues, set 
fire to the porches, and finally razed the buildings them- 
selves to the ground. Out of a great quantity of arms 
they selected the most costly to carry away, but burnt the 
greater part, to the number of 15,000 complete suits of ar- 
mor. All these facts attest the size and opulence of the 

how situated, and by -R-hom enlarged? 5. Where was Lake Conope, and what 
other name had it? 6. Where was Calydon, by whom founded, and what did the 
surrounding country produce: how is it famed in mythology? 7. Point out and 
give an account of Therma, or Thermum. 8. Point out and describe Antirrhium: 
mention its other names, and state what rendered it important. 



GKAECIA. 33 

town. Some years after, Philip again made a similar expe- 
dition against this town, and destroyed it completely. 

8. Antirrhium, Castello di Homelia, a promontory on 
the borders of Aetolia and Locris, was so called from its 
%)eing opposite to Rhium, another point in Achaia. It was 
sometimes called Molycricum, from its vicinity to the 
town called Molycria or Molycrium, and was also called 
Rhium Aetolicum. The narrowness of the strait between 
these two promontories rendered this point of great im- 
portance for the passage of troops to and from Aetolia 
and the Peloponnesus* On Antirrhium was a temple sacred 
to Neptune. 

1. The small province of Doris, the cradle of the 
Dorian race, lay in the highest valley of the Cephissus, or 
rather of its tributary, the Pindus, between the diverging 
ranges of Oeta and Parnassus : it was bounded on the N. 
by Thessaly, on the W. by Aetolia, on the S. by Locris, 
and on the E. by Phocis. 

2. In this confined and rugged spot there existed a 
Tetrapolis, or confederacy of four towns, named Pindus, 
Erineus, Cytinium, and Boeum, the first two on the 
left, the others on the right bank of the river. These towns 
never attained any consequence, and in the time of the 
Romans were in ruins. 

3. The country is of importance, as the home of the 
Dorians, one of the great Hellenic races, who claimed 
descent from the Mythical Dorus. The Dorians first in- 
habited Phthiotis in the time of Deucalion : next, under 
Dorus, they dwelt in Hestiaeotis at the foot of Ossa and 
Olympus ; expelled thence by the Cadmeans, they settled 
in Mt. Pindus, and subsequently took up their abode in 
Dryopis, afterwards called Doris. Their fifth and last mi- 
gration was to Peloponnesus, which they conquered, accord- 
ing to tradition, 80 years after the Trojan war. 

6* — JLocris, 

1. Locris derived its name from the Locri, its inhab-, 

itants. i 

1. "WTiere and what was Doris, and how was it bounded 1 2. What towns did 
Doris contain ? 3. What gives this small country importance ? Wliat were the 
migrations of the Dorians ? ^ , ^ 

1. Point out Locris. The name whence derived? 2. How many and what 



34 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

2. There were three distinct tribes : the Locri Ozolae, 
Locri Epicnemidii, and Locri Opuntii. 

3. The Locri Ozolae occupied a narrow tract of 
country, situated on the northern shore of the Corinthian 
gulf, commencing at the Aetolian Rhium, and terminating 
near Crissa, the first town of Phocis, on the bay to which 
it gave its name. Their name, according to fabulous ac- 
counts, was derived from some fetid springs near the hill 
of Taphius, or Taphiassus, situated on their coast, and be- 
neath which it was reported that the centaur I^essus had 
been entombed. 

4. JNTaupactus was at the western extremity of the 
Locrian Territory, and close to Rhium of Aetoha. It was 
said to have derived its name from the circumstance of the 
Heraclidae having there constructed the fleet (vavs and 
Tryjyvvixi) in which they crossed over into Peloponnesus. 

5. The acquisition of Naupactus was of great importance 
to the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, as it was 
an excellent station for their fleet in the Corinthian gulf, and 
not only afforded them the means of keeping up a commu- 
nication with Corcyra and Acarnania, but enabled them 
also to watch the motions of the enemy on the opposite 
coast, and to guard against any designs they might form 
against their allies. 

6. Amphissa stood at the head of the Crissaean gulf, 
according to Aeschines sixty stadia, but according to Pausa- 
nias, one hundred and twenty stadia from Delphi It was 
the most celebrated city of the Locri Ozolae. Several years 
after the Peloponnesian war Amphissa was destroyed by 
order of the Amphictyons, for having dared to restore the 
walls of Crissa, and cultivate the ground which was held to 
be sacred ; and lastly on account of the manner in which they 
molested travellers who had occasion to pass through their 
territory. At a later period, however, it seems to have 
somewhat recovered from this ruined state, when under the 
dominion of the Aetolians. The modern town of jSalona 
represents the ancient Amphissa, and the Sinus Crissaeus 
now bears the name of the Gulf of /Salona. 

V. The Locri Ejpicnemidii occupied a small district 
immediately adjoining Thermopylae, and confined between 

divisions of the Locri were there ? 3. The Locri Ozolae occupied what district, 
and why so called? 4. Where was Naupactus, and why so called ? 6. When and 
how did it prove of great importance to the Athenians ? 6. Where and what was 
Amphissa, and what became of it ? 7. Why were the Locri Epicnemidii so called, 



GEAECIA. 35 

Mount Cnemis, a branch of Oeta, and the sea of Euboea, 
and they obtained then* name from Mount Cnemis, near 
which they dwelt. 

8. South of Thermopylae, and quite near it, was Al- 
peni or Alpenus. Herodotus informs us that Leonidas 
and his httle band drew their suppHes from this town. 

9. Thronium was on the river Boagrius, and at some 
distance from the coast. During the Peloponnesian war 
Thronium was taken by the Athenians : several years later 
it feU into the hands of Onomarchus, the Phocian general, 
who enslaved the inhabitants. 

10. The Lichades were small islands along the coast of 
the Locri Epicnemidii, deriving their name from Lichas, 
who was here, according to the legend, hurled into the sea 
by Hercules, when maddened by the torture which he suf- 
fered from the poisoned tunic. There was a monument of 
Lichas on one of these islands. 

11. The Locri Opuntii derived their name from the 
city of Opus, their metropolis, and occupied a line of coast 
of about 15 miles, beginning a little south of Cnemides, [a 
fortress of the Locri Epicn.,] and extending to the town of 
Halae, on the frontier of Boeotia. 

12. Opus was near the coast of the Opuntian territory, 
fifteen stadia (Livy says only 1 mile) from the sea. It was 
one of the most ancient cities of Greece, and celebrated by 
l?indar as the domain of Deucalion and Pyrrha. This city 
gave name to the Opuntius Sinus, now the Gulf of Talanti. 

13. Atalanta was an island opposite to Opus ; it was 
fortified by the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war, 
with a view of checking the depredations committed by the 
Locrian pirates on the coast of Euboea. It is still called 
Talanta. 

1. Phocis derived its name from Phocus, the son of 
Aeacus and Psamathe. 

2. It was bounded on the "N. by the Locri Epicnemidii ; 
N. "W". by the Locri Opuntii, E. by Boeotia, S. by the 
Corinthian gulf, and "W. by the Locri Ozolae and by Doris. 

and where did they dwell? 8. Where was Alpeni or Alpemis, and noted for 
what? 9. Where was Thronium, and how noted? 10. Where were the Lichades, 
and why so called? 11. Why were the Locri Opuntii bo called, and where did 
they dwell? 12. Where was Opus, and how famed ? 13. Where and what was 
Atalanta? 

1. Phocis derives its name from whom ? 2. How was it bounded ? 3. What 



36 AJSrCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

3. It extended originally to the Euboeau channel, occu- 
pying an extent of coast of nearly one day's sail, from the 
border of the Locri Ozolae to the confines of Boeotia ; but it 
was subsequently cut off entirely from the sea by Locris. 
It was unequally divided by the range by Parnassus into 
two portions, the northern consisting of the broad valley 
of the Cephissus, the southern of a hilly country, broken up 
by the irregular offsets from that range, which terminates 
in Mt. Helicon on the confines of Boeotia. Parnassus at- 
tains its greatest elevation, 7,500 feet, in the centre of this 
province, terminating in three peaks, the most important 
of which was named Lycoreia : its summit was generally 
covered with snow. 

4. Cirrha was at the head of the Crissaean bay, Sinus 
Crissaeus^ now the gulf of Salona, and close to the mouth 
of the river Plistus or Pleistus, (IXA-eio-Toc.) It was the har- 
bor of Delphi, from which, according to Strabo andDicaear- 
chus, it was distant eighty stadia. 

5. We are told by Athenaeus that war was once waged 
by the Cirrhaeans against the Phocians. It arose from the 
circumstance of the former having carriers, off a Phocian 
maiden, together with some Argive women, on their return 
from Delphi. The contest lasted for ten years, when 
Cirrha was taken. " The Cirrhaean plain and port," say« 
Aeschines, " which are now accursed, were formerly inhab- 
ited by the Cirrhaei and Acragallidae, a nefarious race, 
who violated the sanctity of the temple of Delphi, and 
ransacked its treasures. The oracle, on being consulted by 
the Amphictyona, declared that a war of extermination 
was to be carried on against these offenders, and that their 
land was never hereafter to be placed in a state of cultiva- 
tion. This decree was executed in the time of Solon, who 
took an active part in the expedition. The port of Cirrha 
was then demolished, and its territory declared accursed, 
according to the form prescribed by the oracle ; but this 
edict was afterwards violated by the Amphissians, who 
tilled the land and repaired the port." 

6. Crissa, which gave its name to the gulf and plain on 
which it stood, was situated higher up than Cirrha, towards 
the foot of Mount Parnassus. It was more especially fa- 
mous for the celebration of the Pythian games solemnized 
in its plain. 

•was its original extent, and how -was it divided ? 4. Where and what was Cirrha ? 
5. For what was it noted, and why destroyed ? 6. Where and what was Crissa.? 



GEAECIA. 37 

7. The ill treatment and vexations to which, according 
to Strabo, strangers who visited the temple of Delphi were 
subjected by the Crissaeans, together with the heavy con- 
tributions and duties which they laid on all imports from 
Sicily and Italy, at length induced the Amphictyons to 
take forcible measures for repressing these malpractices. 
Eurylochus, a Thessalian, was intrusted with the command 
of the troops on this service, and in the contest that en- 
sued, which is commonly termed the Sacred or Crissaean 
war, best known as the First Sacred War, b, c. 595-585 — 
that people were finally conquered, and their town com- 
pletely destroyed. 

8. On the coast, S. E. of the port of Cirrha, was Anti- 
cyra celebrated for its manufacture of hellebore, which 
grew abundantly on the mountains in the vicinity, and was 
esteemed by the ancient physicians as a cure for insanity. 
There was another Anticyra at the mouth of the Sperchius, 
(in the territory of the Malienses,) also noted for its pro- 
duction of hellebore. 

9. Delphi was situated in the valley of the Pleistus, at 
the foot of the S. side of Parnassus. It was the largest 
city in Phocis. 

10. It was the seat of the most renowned oracle of an- 
tiquity, the oracle of ApoUo, on account of which it was 
deemed the centre of the world. 

11. Its original name was Pytho. The later name ap- 
pears to have been derived from the cavern whence issued 
the prophetic vapor ; but this is a mere conjecture. 

12. It was considered and called the navel of the earth. 
To this relates the legend that Jupiter himself proved the 
fact, by despatching two eagles from difierent quarters of 
the heavens, which encountered each other in that spot. 
There was, moreover, in the temple a stone, called the 
navel-stone, which was adorned with two eagles, and divers 
other devices. 

13. The oracles were delivered by a priestess, called the 
Pythia. Strabo reports that the sacred tripod was placed 
over the mouth of the cave whence proceeded the exha- 
lation, and which was of great depth. On this sat the 
Pythia, who, having caught the inspiration, pronounced 

7. Give some account of it. 8. Where was Anticj'ra, and for what was it noted ? 
What other town was there of the same name ? 9. Where and what was Delphi? 
10. For what was it celebrated ? 11. What was the original name, and whence is 
its later name supposed to have been derived? 12. What was it considered, 
and what legend relates to this ? 13. How were the oracles delivered, and what 



38 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

her oracles in extempore verse or prose ; if the latter, it 
was immediately versified by the poets always in the em- 
ploy of the oracle for that purpose. The oracle itself is 
said to have been discovered by accident. Some goats, 
having strayed to the mouth of the cavern, were suddenly 
seized with convulsions : those hkewise by whom they were 
found in this situation having been affected in a similar 
manner, the circumstance was deemed to be supernatural, 
and the cave pronounced the seat of prophecy. 

14. It became the richest shrine in Greece, or in the 
world : the cause of this was that, in consequence of its 
great and wide-spread reputation, it was consulted not only 
by Greeks, but by foreign princes and nations, who loaded 
the altars of the god with rich presents and costly offer- 
ings. Delphi derived further celebrity from its being the 
place where the Amphictyonic council held one of their 
assemblies. 

16. Xerxes, after having forced the pass of Thermopy- 
lae, detached a portion of his army into Phocis, with or- 
ders to secure Delphi and its treasures. The enterprise 
failed, owing, as it was reported by the Delphians, to the 
manifest interposition of the Deity, who terrified the barba- 
rians, and hurled destruction on their scattered bands. 
Many years subsequent to this event the temple fell into 
the hands of the Phocians, headed by Philomelus, who scru- 
pled not to appropriate its riches to the payment of his mer- 
cenaries in the war (the Second Sacred War) which he was 
then (b. c. 352) waging against Thebes. At a still later 
period (b. c. 279) Delphi became exposed to a formidable 
attack from a large body of Gauls, (or Celts,) headed by 
their king Brennus. According to Strabo these barbarians, 
having forced the defiles of Oeta, possessed themselves of 
the temple, and ransacked its treasures. The booty which 
they obtained on this occasion is stated to have been im- 
mense ; and this they must have succeeded in removing to 
their own country, since we are told that, on the capture 
of Tolosa, a city of Gaul, by the Roman general Caepio, a 
great part of the Delphic spoils were found there. Pausa- 
nias, on the contrary, relates that the Gauls met with great 
disasters in their attempt on Delphi, and were totally dis- 
comfited through the miraculous intervention of the god. 
Historians consider it at all events certain, that the Gauls 

first suggested the oracle ? 14. What did the Delphic oracle become, and from 
what cause? And what gave Delphi additional celebrity? 15. What attempts 



GEAEOIA. 39 

were repulsed with great loss, including that of their leader 
Brennus, who fell by his own hand. Sylla is also said to 
have robbed this temple. Another plunderer was the em- 
peror N"ero, who carried off five hundred statues of bronze 
at one time. But according to Gibbon, Constantino the 
Great inflicted upon Delphi greater injuries than any of the 
spoilers who had preceded him. He carried away the 
sacred tripods to adorn the hippodrome of his new city, 
and among them the one which the Greeks, after the battle 
of Plataea, found in the camp of Mardonius. (Decl. and 
FaU, chap. 17.) 

16. The priestess could be consulted only on certain 
days, and never oftener than once in the course of a 
month. 

17. Mount Parnassus rises above Delphi, and ex- 
tends from the territory of the Locri Ozolae to the ex- 
tremity of Phocis, in a N". E. direction, where it joins the 
chain of Oeta. Towards the S. E. it is connected with 
those of Helicon and the other Boeotian ridges. Usually, 
however, the name denotes only the lofty mountain at the 
foot of which stood the city of Delphi. 

18. Mount Parnassus was sacred to Apollo and the Muses. 

19. The two lofty rocks which rise perpendicularly from 
Delphi, and obtained for the mountain the epithet of Slk6' 
pv(jios or the two-headed, were anciently known by the 
names of Hyampeia and Naupleia; but sometimes 
that ofPhaedriades was applied to them in common. 

20. The celebrated Castalian fount, sacred to the 
Muses, pours down the cleft or chasm between those two 
summits, being fed by the perpetual snows of Parnassus. 
" The Castalian Spring," says Dodwell, "is clear and forms 
an excellent beverage. The water which oozes from the 
rock, was in ancient times introduced into a hollow square, 
where it was retained for the Pythia and the oracular 
]>riests. The fountain is ornamented with pendant ivy, and 
overshadowed by a large fig-tree." 

21. Higher up the mountain, nearly 7 miles from Delphi 
was the celebrated Corycian Cave, sacred to the Cory- 
cian nymphs and the god Pan. Pausanias describes it as 
surpassing in extent every other known cavern. 

■were made to plunder Delphi, and with what success ? 16. When and how 
often could the priestess he consulted ? 17. Point out and describe Mount 
Parnassus. 18. Mt. Parnassus was sacred to whom ? 19. The two summits 
were how called? 20. State where the Castalian fount was, and describe it. 
21. Where and what was the Corycian cave? 22. To what use was it put on 



40 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

22. Herodotus relates that, on the approach of the Per- 
sians, the greater part of the population of Delphi ascended 
the mountain, and sought refuge in this capacious recess. 
Mr. Raikes, the fii-st modern traveller who discovered its 
site, describes the narrow and low entrance as spreading 
at once into a chamber 330 feet long, by nearly 200 wide. 
The stalactites from the top hung in the most graceful 
forms the whole length of the roof, and fell like drapery 
down the sides. 

23. El ate a, next to Delphi the most considerable and 
important of the cities of Phocis, was situated on the decli- 
vities of Mount Cnemis, 180 stadia (22| miles) from Am- 
phissa. Its site was a gently rising slope above the plain 
watered by the Cej)hissus. It was captured and burnt by 
the army of Xerxes ; but, being afterwards restored, it was 
occupied by Phihp son of Amyntas (i.e. Philip of Macedon, 
father of Alexander) on his advance into Phocis to over- 
awe the Athenians. The alarm and consternation produced 
at Athens by his approach is described by Demosthenes in 
his oration de Corona. Strabo remarks on its advanta- 
geous situation, which commanded the entrance into Phocis 
and Boeotia. 

24. Abae, S. E. and not far from Elatea, is said to have 
been founded by a colony from Argos, and was early cele- 
brated for an oracle of Apollo, held in great esteem and 
veneration. The temple of Apollo, being richly adorned 
with treasures and various offerings, was sacked and burned 
by the Persians. Having been restored, it was agam burned 
by the Boeotians, in the Sacred War. Hadrian caused 
another to be built, but much inferior in size to the former. 
Sir W. Gell points out its ruins near the village of Exarcho. 

8. — Moeotia, 

1. Boeotia extends from sea to sea, but is separated 
from the Euripus or Euboean channel by a continuation 
of the Locrian mountains, and from the Corinthian gulf by 
the lofty range of Helicon. On its northern frontier the 
offshoots of Parnassus and the Locrian mountains leave 
only a narrow opening through which the Cephissus flows ; 
and on the S. the country is shut in by the lofty barrier of 

one occasion, and -what is its size? 23. Where was Elatea, and how famed 
in Grecian history? 24. Where was Abae, and for what famed? Give some 
account of this city and its temple. 

1. How was Boeotia bounded? 2. What is the character of its sxirface? 



GEAECIA. 41 

Cithaeron. In other words, it had Phocis on the W., the 
Locri Ozolae on the [N". W., the Opuntius Sinus and the 
EuriiDus on the K. and N. E., and the Corinthian gulf on 
theS. W. 

2. Boeotia, according to the foregoing description, is a 
large hollow basin in two unequal sections. It was perhaps 
the richest and most fertile country of Greece, j^roducing 
in abundance every article of food. A distinguished fea- 
ture is the Lake Copais, especially famed for its eels, 
which grew to a large size and were esteemed by the epi- 
cures of antiquity. 

3. That portion of the Corinthiacus Sinus lying between 
the promontory of Antirrhium and the Megarean coast was 
sometimes named Mare Alcyonium, because its waters 
were strikingly calm and placid at certain seasons. 

4. A few miles inland, and somewhat to the IST. "W., near 
Mt. Helicon, was Thisbe, famous for the wild pigeons 
which, according to Homer, abounded there. 

5. Mount Helicon, now Falaeovouni or Zagora^ 
rises above Thisbe. It was famed in antiquity as the seat 
of Apollo and the Muses, and has been sung by poets of 
every age, from the days of Orpheus to the present time. 
Strabo affirms that Helicon nearly equals Mount Parnassus 
in height, and retains its snows durmg a great part of the 
year. 

6. On the summit was the grove of the Muses, 
adorned with several statues, and a little below was the 
fountain of Aganippe, whence the Muses, to whom 
it was sacred, were called Aganippides. The fountain 
Hippocrene was about twenty feet above the grove : it 
is said to have burst forth, when Pegasus struck his hoof 
into the ground. "l-mroKpyivq or "iTnrovKprjvr} signifies ^' The 
horse's fountain." These tAvo springs supplied the small 
rivers named Olmius and Permessus, which, after uniting 
their waters, flowed into Lake Copais near Haliartus. 

Y. A sera, celebrated as the residence of Hesiod, was 
situated on a rocky summit belongmg to Helicon. It could 
boast of considerable antiquity, having been founded, as 
the poet Hegesinous, quoted by Pausanias, asserts, by 
Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Aloeus. Col. Leake finds the 
rnins of Ascra at the modern JPyrgaJci, and says, " It is re- 

3. What -was the Mare Alcyonium, and why was it so called? 4. Where was 
Thisbe and for what was it famed? 5. Point out and describe Mount Helicon. 
6. Name the two fountains of Mt, Helicon, and describe them. 7. Where was 



42 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

markable that a single tower is the only portion of the 
ruins conspicuously preserved, just as Pausanias describes 
Ascra in his time. " (After a. d. 118.) "The place is now 
called PyrgaJci from the tower, which is formed of equal 
and regular layers of masonry, and is uncommonly large." 
— Leake, vol. ii. 491. 

8. Thespiae, as Strabo informs us, was forty stadia 
(about 4f miles) from Ascra, and near the foot of Helicon, 
looking toward the south and the Crissaean gulf. Its an- 
tiquity is attested by Homer (II. ii. 498.) The Thespians 
are worthy of a place in history for their brave and gene- 
rous conduct during the Persian war. When the rest of 
Boeotia basely submitted to Xerxes, they alone refused to 
tender the symbols of submission, earth and water, to his 
deputies. The troops, also, whom they sent to Leonidas, to 
aid the Spartans at Thermopylae, chose rather to die at 
their post than to desert their commander and his heroic 
followers. Their city was in consequence burned by the Per- 
sians, after it had been evacuated by the inhabitants, who 
retired to the Peloponnesus. A small body of these fought 
however at Plataeae under Pausanias. The Thespians dis- 
tinguished themselves also in the battle of Delium, against 
the Athenians, being nearly aU slain at their post. The 
Thebans afterwards basely took advantage of this heavy 
loss, to pull down the walls of their city, and bring it under 
subjection, under the pretext of their having favored the 
Athenians. They subsequently made an attempt to recover 
their independence ; but failing in this enterprise, many of 
them sought refuge in Athens. Leake says the ruins of 
Thespiae are immediately below Rimoskastro. Cramer 
writes Eremo Castro. Derived from 'BprjixoKaa-rpov, "De- 
serted Castle. " 

9. Leuctr a was on the road from Thespiae to Plataeae, 
and according to Xenophon, in the territory of the former. 
It is celebrated in history for the signal victory which the 
great Theban general Epaminondas gained here over the 
Spartans, and of which Pausanias says that it was the most 
brilliant ever obtained by Greeks over Greeks. From that 
moment the power and fame of Sparta began to decline, 
and after the battle of Mantinea it ceased for ever to be the 
arbiter of Greece. This spot stiU retains its ancient name, 
though pronounced JLefka. 

Ascra, and for "what was it famed ? 8. Point out and give an account of Thespiae. 
9. Where was Leuctra, and for what was it famed 1 10. Point out Plataeae and 



' GEAECIA. 43 

10. Plsptaeae, one of the most ancient Boeotian cities, 
was situated at the foot of Mt. Cithaeron, and near the river 
Asopus, which di^dded its territory from that of Thebes. 
The Plataeans, animated by a spirit of independence, had 
early separated themselves from the Boeotian confederacy, 
and placed themselves under the protection of Athens. 
Grateful for the services which they received on this occa- 
sion from Athens, they testified their zeal in its behalf, by 
sending a thousand soldiers to Marathon, who thus shared 
the glory of that memorable day. 

11. Plataeae owes its celebrity chiefly to the great bat- 
tle which took place near it, and in which the Plataeans 
most bravely distinguished themselves, so as to earn the 
thanks of Pausanias and the confederate commanders, 
who here totally defeated Mardonius, the Persian general. 
The city, which had been burned by the army of Xerxes, 
was soon restored, with the assistance of Athens. 

12. In the Peloponnesian war, Plataeae w^as destroyed 
by a large Peloponnesian force under Archidamus, king of 
Sparta, who put to death the inhabitants, and razed the 
tow^n to the ground. Pausanias says that it was again re- 
stored after the peace of Antalcidas ; but, when the Spar- 
tans seized on the Cadmeian citadel, the Thebans, suspecting 
that the Plataeans were privy to the enterprise, took pos- 
session of the town by stratagem, and once more levelled its 
foundations to the ground. Cassander, king of Macedon, 
is said to have rebuilt both Thebes and Plataeae at the 
same time. The ruins of Plataeae are situated upon a pro- 
montory projecting from the base of Cithaeron, and the 
walls may be traced near the little village of Kockla. 

13. Cithaeron is an elevated ridge, dividing Boeotia 
first from Megaris, and afterwards from Attica, and finally 
uniting with Mount Parnes and other summits which belong 
to the northeastern side of that province. It was dedicated, 
as Pausanias affirms, to Jupiter Cithaeronius, and was cele- 
brated in antiquity as having been the scene of many 
events recorded by poets and other writers. Such were the 
metamorphosis of Actaeou, the death of Pentheus, and the 
exposure of Oedipus. Here, also, Bacchus was said to hold 
his revels and celebrate his mystic orgies, accompanied by 
his usual train of satyrs and frantic bacchantes. Once well 

give an account of it. 11. To what does Plataeae chiefly owe its celebrity? 
12. What befell Plataeae in the Peloponnesian war, and what became of it after- 
wards ? 13. Point out and describe Mt. Cithaeron. 14. Point out and describe 



44 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

timbered, it is now barren, but crowned with fdjrests of fir, 
from wMcli it derives its modern name of Elatea, ('EAari;, 
the pine or fir-tree.) 

14. Thebae, or as it is written in Enghsh, Thebes, one 
of the most ancient and celebrated of the Grecian cities, 
and capital of Boeotia, was situated near the small river 
Ismenus, about five miles S. of the lake Hylica. It is said, 
by a well known legend, to have been originally found- 
ed by Cadmus, who gave it the name ofCadmeia, which 
was, in after times, confined to the citadel only. 

15. The later city, which was built around this citadel, 
was much more extensive on its northern than on its 
southern side, the northern portion being called Upper, the 
southern, Lower Thebes. Dicaearchus estimates the cir- 
cumference of Thebes at seventy stadia, which statement 
probably includes both suburbs and gardens ; for in another 
place, he assigns to it a smaller extent. 

16. The poets ascribe the erection of the walls of the 
city to Ampbion and Zethus, the stones being moved, by 
the magic notes of Amphion's wonderful lyi'e, to arrange 
themselves into walls. 

17. Besieged, at a period earlier than the Trojan war, 
by the Argive chiefs, the aUies of Polynices, the Thebans 
successfully resisted their attacks, and finally obtained a 
signal victory ; but the Epigoni, or descendants of the 
seven defeated Argive warriors, having raised an army to 
avenge the defeat and death of their fathers, the city was 
taken by assault and sacked, and reduced to a most abject 
condition. Many years after, the Cadmeia (Cadmea) was 
surprised and held by a division of the Lacedaemonian 
trooj)s, until they were compelled to evacuate the place by 
Pelopidas and his associates. 

18. Philij) of Macedon, having defeated the Thebans 
at Chaeronea, placed a garrison in their citadel; but on 
the accession of Alexander they revolted against that 
prince, who stormed their city, and razed it to the ground. 
Olymp. cxi. 2. b. c. 335. Rebuilt, twenty years later, by 
Cassander, with the aid of Athens and other toTVTis, it was 
subsequently twice taken and much injured by Demetrius 
Poliorcetes. At a later period it was greatly reduced and 
impoverished by the rapacious Sylla. 

the situation of Thebae, and give an account of its foundatioD. 15. What is to 
be said of the later city, and how does Dicaearchus estimate its extent ? 16. What 
•do the poets fable respecting ixs walls? 17. By "whom was Thebes destroyed, and 
what was its subsequent condition ? 18. What treatment did Thebes receive from 



GEAECIA. 45 

19. 'NesiV the Homolian gates was a hill and temple 
consecrated to Apollo Ismenus. At the foot of the hill on 
which it stood, flowed the little stream Ismenus. Dod- 
well says : " The Ismenos has less pretensions to the title of 
a river than the Athenian Ilissus, for it has no water ex- 
cept after heavy rains, when it becomes a torrent and 
rushes into the lake of Hylika, oy Hylice^ about four 
miles W. of Thebes. 

20. Sir William Gell noticed a brook to the west of the 
Cadmeia, by some Turkish tombs, which he considers to 
be the ancient Dirce, a fountain whose waters emptied 
into the Ismenus. The fountain of Mars, said to have 
been guarded by the dragon slain by Cadmus, was above 
the temple of Apollo Ismenius. Without the walls was 
the tomb of the sons of Oedipus, and the fountain called 
Oedipodia. 

21. Beyond Dirce, Pausanias points out the remains of 
Pindar's house, the only building spared by Alexander, 
and also the chapel erected to Cybele by the poet. 

22. Of the inhabitants of ancient Thebes, Dicaearchus 
makes the following statement : " The inhabitants are 
noble-minded, and wonderfally sanguine in all the concerns 
of life ; but they are bold, insolent, proud, and hasty in 
coming to blows, either with foreigners or their fellow- 
townsmen. They turn their backs upon every thing which 
is connected with justice, and never think of settling dis- 
putes, which may arise in the business of life, by argument, 
but by audaciousness and violence. * * * * ^ fpj^g 
women are the handsomest and most elegant in all Greece, 
from the stateliness of their forms, and the graceful air 
with which they move." 

23. Coronea was situate S. W. of lake Copais, and 
S. E. of Chaeronea. It was a city of considerable antiquity " 
and importance, and it is said to have been founded, 
together with Orchomenus, by the descendants of Athamas, 
who came from Thessaly. Several important actions took 
place, at different times, in its vicinity. Among these, the 
battle of Coronea was gained by Agesilaus and the Spartans 
against the Thebans and their allies, in the second year of 
Olympiad xcvi. b. c. 394. In the vicinity of Coronea was 

Philip of Macedon, and what were its suhsequent fortunes? 19, Where was the 
Ismenus ? State for what it was famed, and describe it, 20, What celebrated 
fountains were near Thebes ? 21. What lay beyond Dirce ? 22. What was the 
character of the ancient Thebans ? 2§. Point out and give an account of Coronea. 



46 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

a celebrated temple erected to Minerva Itonis, similar to 
that in Thessaly. It was in this edifice that the general 
council of the Boeotian states assembled, until it was dis 
solved by the Romans. 

24.- At the distance of forty stadia (about 4f miles) to 
the S. of Coronea rose Mount Libethrius, one of the sum- 
mits of Helicon, dedicated to the Muses and the IsTymphs, 
called JjihethricJes. There was also a fountain named Lib- 
ethrias. 

25. S. W. of lake Copais, to the W. of Coronea, and 
toward the borders of Phocis, we find Lebadea, which 
derived its name from Lebadus^ an Athenian. The Hom- 
eric Midea was situated, according to Pausanias, on a 
height, from whence the inhabitants, under the conduct 
of this Lebadus, removed to the lower ground, and there 
built the town to which they gave the name of Lebadeia. 

26. This city was celebrated in antiquity for the oracle 
of Trophonius, son of Erginus, king of Orchomenus, who, 
at a time when the Greeks were chiefly indebted to Phoe- 
nicia for artists, obtained, with the aid of his brother 
Agamedes, such celebrity as a constructor of temples, 
treasuries, palaces, and other works, that by a consequence, 
natural in a superstitious age, of the admiration in which 
his talents were held, he was believed after his death to 
predict futurity, and to have been, not the son of Erginus, 
but of Apollo. 

27. The extensive reputation which this oracle had ob- 
tained at a remote period, is proved by its having been 
consulted by Croesus and Mardonius ; and more than six 
centuries afterwards, its administrators were still successful 
in maintaining the popular delusion. The oracle was situ- 
ated in a cave above the town, into which those who con- 
sulted the Fates were obliged to descend, after performing 
various ceremonies. 

28. Below the cave were the grove and temple of 
Trophonius, the fountains of Lethe and Mne- 
mosyne, and the temples of Proserpine, Demeter, 
Jupiter and Apollo; a chapel dedicated to Bona For- 
tuna; all of which were filled with statues by the first 
artists ; whence Pausanias observes that Lebadea was as 



24. Where "waa Motmt Libethriias, and for what was it famed ? 25. Point out and 
give an account of Lebadea, (Modern Livadia.) 26. For what was this city cele- 
brated? 27. What proves the extensive reputation of this oracle, and where was 
it situated ? 28. What was below the cave, and what does Pausanias say of 



GEAECIA. 47 

riclily ornamented with works of art as any city of Greece. 
It is, however, said to have been plundered by the troops 
of Mithridates. 

29. To the "N. W. of Lebadea was Chaeronea, a city 
of some consequence, and celebrated in history from the 
important military events which occurred in its territory, 
and also as being the birth-place of Plutarch. The cele- 
brated battle of Chaeronea, gained by Philip of Macedon 
over the Athenians and Boeotians, was fought in the third 
year of the 110th Olympiad, or 338 b. c. Two hundred 
and fifty-two years later, i. e. 86 b. c, this town witnessed 
another bloody engagement between the Romans under 
the command of Sylla, and the troops of Mithridates, com- 
manded by Taxiles and Archelaus. 

30. On the western shore of the Copaic or Cephissic 
lake, (Lake Copais) as it is sometimes called, and near where 
the Cephissus discharges its waters into that lake, was 
Orchomenus, the second city of Boeotia, and at one time 
even rivalling Thebes itself, in wealth, power, and impor- 
tance. 

31. Its first inhabitants are said to have been the 
Phlegyae, a lawless race, who regarded neither gods 
nor men. The Phlegyae having been destroyed by the 
gods for their impiety, were succeeded by the Minyae, 
who came apparently from Thessaly, and are commonly 
looked upon as the real founders of Orchomenus, which 
thence obtained the surname of Minyan. 

32. At this period Orchomenus was so renowned for its 
wealth and power, that Homer represents it as vying with 
the most opulent cities in the world. These riches are 
said to have been deposited in a building erected for that 
purpose by Minyas, and which Pausanias describes as an 
astonishing work, and equally worthy of admiration with 
the walls of Tiryus or the pyramids of Egypt. Thebes 
was at that time inferior in power to the Minyeian (Mtvveios) 
city, and in a war with Erginus, king of the latter, was 
compelled to become its tributary. As another proof of 
the wealth and civilization to which Orchomenus had at- 
tained, it is mentioned that Eteocles, one of its early kings, 
was the first to erect and consecrate a temple to the Graces, 



Lebadea, as respects works of art ? 29. Where was Chaeronea, and for what 
was it famed? 30. Point out and give an account of Orchomenus. 31. Who were 
its first inhaMtants, what was their character, what befell them, and who Avere 
the real founders of the city. 32. How does Homer describe this city, and what 



48 AlfCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

whence Orchomenus is designated by Pindar as the city of 
the Graces, whose worship prevailed there pre-eminently. 
In a war waged against Hercules its power was greatly im- 
paired, though at the period of the Trojan war it still re- 
tained its independence. 

33. It appears to have been annexed to the Boeotian 
Confederacy about 60 years after the siege of Troy, in con- 
sequence of the ex23ulsion of the Minyans by the Aeolians, 
who had themselves been expelled from their places of 
abode, by the Thessalians, after whom the country thus 
occupied was named Thessaly. It was occupied by the 
Lacedaemonians at the time they held the Cadmean citadel, 
but joined the Thebans after the battle of Leuctra. The 
latter, however, being now in the height of their ascend- 
ency, not long after made an expedition against Orchome- 
nus, and, having seized upon the town, put to death the 
male inhabitants, and enslaved the women and children. 
During the Sacred War it was twice in the possession of 
Onomarchus and the Phocians ; but on peace being con- 
cluded, it was given by Philip to the Thebans. 

34. Orchomenus was not restored to liberty and inde- 
pendence till the time of Cassander, when that prince re- 
built Thebes. Besides the temple of the Graces, Pausanias 
mentions those of Bacchus and Hercules : the latter stood 
at the distance of seven stadia from the town. Here were 
also the tombs of Minyas and Hesiod. Modern travellers 
point out the ruins of this celebrated city near the village 
of Scripu. 

35. N^ear Orchomenus flowed the small river Me las, 
which empties itself into the Copaic or Cephissian lake. In 
the marshes formed near the junction of this river with the 
Cephissus grew the reeds so much esteemed by the ancient 
Greeks for the purpose of making flutes and other wind 
instruments. The marshes still produce these reeds in 
abundance. 

36. C o p a e , which gave its name to the lake on which 
it stood, Lake Copais, was a small town of considerable 
antiquity. It was on the northern shore of the lake and 
noted for containing temples of Ceres, Bacchus, and Sera- 
pis. According to Leake, the village of Topolia now occu- 
pies the site of Copae. 

is said of its richeB ? 33. Under what circumstances did it lose its independence ? 
34. How did this city recover its independence : what remarkable structure did it 
contain ? 35. What river near Orchomenus was noted for what ? 36. Where was 



GEAECIA. 49 

37, The Copais palus, by wliicli name it is most 
commonly known, received various names from the differ- 
ent towns situated along its shores. At Haliartus it was 
called Haliartus lacus; at Orchomenus, Orchome- 
nius. Pindar and Homer distinguish it by the name of 
Cephissus. The appellation of Copais, however, finally 
prevailed, as Copae was situated near the deepest part 
of it. 

.38. It is by far the most considerable lake of Greece, 
being not less than 380 stadia, or 47 miles in circuit. Pau- 
sanias states that it was navigable from the mouth of the 
Cephissus to Copae. As this considerable extent of water 
had no apparent discharge, it sometimes threatened to ui- 
undate the whole surrounding country. 

39. Tradition, indeed, asserted that near Copae there 
stood, in the time of Cecrops, two ancient cities, named 
Eleusis and Athenae. Steph. Byz. reports, that when 
Crates drained the waters which had overspread the plains, 
the latter town became visible, 

40. Fortunately for the Boeotians, nature had supplied 
several subterraneous canals, by which the "waters of the lake 
found their way into the sea of Euboea. Their number is 
uncertain, but Dodwell was informed by the natives that 
there were as many as 15. He himself observed only 
4, one at the foot of Mount Ptoos, near Acraephia, 
which conveys the waters of Copais to the lake Hylika, a 
distance of about 2 miles. The other, Katabothra, as they 
are called by the modern Greeks, are on the N". E. side of 
the lake. 

41. The Copais palus was especially famed for its eels, 
which grew to a large size, and were esteemed by the 
epicures of antiquity. "We know from Aristophanes, that 
they found their way to the Athenian market ; and Dod- 
well says that " they are as much celebrated at present, as 
they were in the time of the ancients." 

42. To the northwest of Thebae, on the northern shore 
of Lake Hylika, was Hyle, a small town, celebrated by 
Homer in more than one passage. Hyle appears from the 
IHad (VHI. V. 219) to have been renowned for the manufac- 
ture of those Boeotian shields, which became the common- 

Copae, and for what was it noted ? 37. Point ont Lake Copais, and give an account 
of its names. 38. "What is said of its dimensions, and what does Bausanias state 
regarding it ? 39. What does tradition say and Stephanus of Byzantium report re- 
garding this lake ? 40. How was the danger of inundation averted ? 41. For 
what was this lake principally famed ? 42. "Where was Hyle, and for what was 

3 



60 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

est type of tlie coins of this province ; for the celebrated 
sevenfold shield of Ajax was made by Tichius of Hyle. 

43. To the northeast of Thebes, on the Euripus, was 
Aulis, a seaport town, so celebrated in history as the ren- 
dezvous of the Grecian fleet, when about to sail for Troy. 
Strabo remarks, that as the harbor of Aulis could not con- 
tain more than fifty ships, thq Grecian fleet must have as- 
sembled in the neighboring port of Bathys, which was 
much more extensive. 

44. Anthedon was 160 stadia (about 20 miles) K. of 
Thebes, by a cross road open to carriages. The city, which 
is not extensive, is situated on the Euboean coast. " linearly 
all the inhabitants," says Dicaearchus, " are fishermen, who 
derive their subsistence from trading in hooks, fish, purple 
and sponges. They grow old in their huts on the sea-shore 
in the midst of sea-weeds, and are all thin, and red in the 
face. The very tips of their nails are worn away in their 
sea-faring employment. The greater part of them are 
mariners and shipwrights. So far are they from tilling the 
ground, that they are possessed of none at all. They 
aflSrm that they are descended from Glaucus, the sea god, 
who is said to have been a fisherman." This place was 
famous for its wine. Pausanias informs us that the Cabiri 
were worshipped at Anthedon. Near the sea was the spot 
called the leap of Glaucus. 

45. Tanagra was a considerable town situated in a 
rich and fertile country on the left bank of the Asopus. Its 
more ancient appellation was said to be Graea. Aristotle 
represents it as identical with Oropus. An obstinate bat- 
tle was fought between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians 
in the vicinity of Tanagra, prior to the Peloponnesian war, 
when the former were forced to yield to the superior 
courage and discipline of their enemies. This city was 
famed, as Pausanias reports, for its breed of fighting cocks. 
Speaking of the modern village of Skimatari, Leake says : 
" Three miles to the south of it is Grimadha or Grimala, 
once perhaps the name of a modern village, but now at- 
tached only to the ruins of a Hellenic city which was cer- 
tainly Tanagra." 

46. To the l!^. E. of Thebes, and in the E. corner of 
Boeotia, very near the sea, was Dclium, celebrated for its 

it famed? 43. Where was Aulis, and for what was it famed? 44. Where was 
Anthedon, and what is said of its inhabitants ? 45. Where was Tanagra, and for 
what was it noted? 46. Where was Delium, for what battle is it noted, and what 



1 



GEAECIA. 51 

temple dedicated to Apollo, and also for the battle wMch 
took place in its vicinity between the Athenians and Boeo- 
tians, when the former were totally routed. It was in this 
engagement that Socrates saved the life, according to some 
accounts, of Xenophon, or, according to others, of Alci- 
biades. 

47. To the E. of Delium was Or opus. From its situa- 
tion on the borders of Attica and Boeotia, it was a continual 
subject of dispute between the two people. But it does 
not seem ever to have been an Attic demus, although 
several geographers place the town in Attica. Dodwell 
says that Or opus is now called Ropo [Oropo]. 

1. Megaris was bounded on the IsT. by Boeotia, on the 
E. by Attica and the Saronic gulf, on the S. by the Isthmus 
of Corinth, and on the W. by the Corinthian gulf. 

2. With the exception of the plain in which the city of 
Megara itself was situated, the country was rugged and 
mountainous, and, from the poverty of its soil, inadequate 
to the wants of the inhabitants, who must have derived 
their supplies from Attica and Corinth. 

3. The only spot to be remarked on the southern 
coast is the celebrated Scironian Defile, said to have 
been the haunt of the robber Sciron, until he was destroyed 
by Theseus. This narrow pass was situated, as we learn from 
Strabo, between. Megara and Crommyon, a small maritime 
town belonging to Corinth. The road followed the shore 
for several miles, and was shut in on the land side by a 
lofty mountain, while towards the sea it was lined by dan- 
gerous precipices. Pausanias reports that it was after- 
wards rendered more accessible by the emperor Hadrian, so 
that two carriages could pass each other. It is now again 
too narrow for two vehicles. The Scironian way, now 
called Kaki Scala, is difficult and rugged, and only fre- 
quented by foot passengers. The precipices are two hours 
from Megara and six from Corinth. 

4. The capital of Megaris was Megara. It was situated 
at the foot of two hills, on each of which a citadel had 

incident occurred in tlie engagement ? 4T. Where was Oropns, and to what did its 
situation give rise ? 

1. How was Megaris bounded ? 2. What was the character of its surface 1 
3. Describe the Scironian Pass. 4. What and where was the chief city of Megaris ? 



52 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

been built : these were named Caria and Alcathous. It was 
connected with the port of ISTisaea by two walls, the 
length of which, according to Thucydides, was about 8, ac- 
cording to Strabo, 18 stadia. 

5. They were erected by the Athenians at the time that 
the Megareans placed themselves under their protection. 
The distance from Athens was 210 stadia. Dio Chrysostom 
calls it a day's journey: modern travellers reckon eight 
hours. 

6. A prominent feature of this city was the aqueduct 
of Theagenes, a work remarkable for its magnitude and 
the number of columns with which it was decorated. The 
city was adorned with many temples, pillars, and other fine 
structures. 

7. As has been already said, the port of Megara was 
Nisaea, protected by a citadel of the same name. This 
was a place of considerable strength, but might be cut off 
from the city by effecting a breach in the long walls. 
The port, according to Pausanias, was sheltered by the 
small island of Minoa, which lay off it. Strabo speaks also 
of a promontory of the same name. With reference to 
these two statements Leake holds the following language : 
"Pausanias, ia describing Minoa as an island, adverted 
perhaps to its earHer condition rather than to that which 
existed in his time : for Strabo, near two centuries before, 
had applied to it the word aKpa, or promontory. The 
examples of the conversion of islands into peninsulae are 
so numerous on the coasts of Greece, that the present 
instance has nothmg surjDrising in it, especially as the 
strait which separated J\Iinoa from the main appears from 
Thucydides to have been narrow at the entrance from the 
sea, and to have terminated in a marsh, over which there 
was a bridge or causeway." 

1. Tradition derived the name of Attica fi'om Atthis, 
daughter of Cranaus, one of the earliest kings of the coun- 
try, as we are informed by Pausanias, Strabo, and Aj)ollo- 
dorus. It is acknowledged, however, that previous to the 
reign of Cranaus this portion of Greece was called Acte, 

Describe it. 5. By "whom and when were tlie ■walls erected, and liow far was it 
from Athens? 6. What was a prominent feature of this city, and with what was 
the city adorned ? 7. Point out and describe the port of Megara. 

1. '^\^lat is the derivation of the name Attica ? 2. What was the shape of At, 



GEAECIA. 53 

either from Actaens, one of its most ancient chiefs, or, as 
Strabo supposes, from its maritime situation and great ex- 
tent of coast, the Greek word 'Akt^J denoting sea-beach or 
strand. 

2. Attica may be considered as forming a triangle, the 
base of which is common also to Boeotia, while the two 
other sides are washed by the sea, having their vertex 
formed by Cape Sunium. The prolongation of the western 
side, till it meets the base at the extremity at Cithaeron, 
served also as a common boundary to the Athenian terri- 
tory, as well as that of Megara. Thus the country was 
bounded, IsT. by Boeotia ; W. by Megaris ; S. by the Saro- 
nic Gulf; E. by the Aegaean Sea. 

3. Attica is divided by many ancient writers into three 
districts: — 1. The Highlands, {rj ScaKpta, also Speivrj 'Attik-^,) 
the N. E. of the country, containing the range of Parnes and 
extending S. to the promontory Cynosura : the only level 
part of this district was the small plain of Marathon open- 
mg to the sea. 2. The Plain, {rj TreStas, to TreStW,) the S.W. 
of the country, included both the plain round Athens and 
the plain round Eleusis, and extended S. to the promontory 
Zoster. 3. The Sea-coast District, {rj TrapaAta,) the southern 
part of the country, terminating in the promontory Su- 
nium. Besides these three divisions we read also of a 
fourth. The Midland District, (/^eo-oyata,) still called Meso- 
gia, an undulating plain in the middle of the country, 
bounded by Mount Pentelicus on the N"., Mount Hymettus 
on the W. and the sea on the E. The soil of Attica is not 
very fertile : the greater part of it is not adapted for grow- 
ing corn ; but it produces olives, figs and grapes, especially 
the two former, in great perfection. The country is dry : 
the chief river is the Cephissus, which rises in Parnes, and 
flows through the Athenian plain. The abundance of wild 
flowers in the country made the honey of Mt. Hymettus 
very celebrated in antiquity. Excellent marble was ob- 
tained from the quarries of Pentelicus, N. E. of Athens, 
and a considerable supply of silver from the mines of Lau- 
rium, near Sunium. 

4. The capital of Attica was Athenae, {AOrjvai, also, 
AOt^vt] in Homer, now Athens,) situated about 30 stadia 



tica, and ■what were its boundaries? 3. How was Attica divided, the High- 
lands containing what ? What did the Plain include ? What and where was the 
third division, and what other division was there, where, how called, and what were 
its character, boundaries, and productions ? 4. What and where was the chief 



54 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

from the sea, on the S. W. slope of Mount Lycabettus, be- 
tween the Cephissus on the W. and the Ihssus on the E., 
the latter of which streams flowed close by the walls of the 
town. 

5. Maritime Athens may be considered as divided into 
the three quarters of Piraeus, Munychia, and Zea, 
which accordingly are the three ports or harbors of Athens. 

6. The Piraeus (also Piraeeus) is by far the largest 
and most important of these three ports. It was situated 
in the peninsula about 5 miles S. W. of Athens. This 
peninsula, which is sometimes called by the general name of 
Piraeeus, contained three harbors, Piraeus proper, on the 
western side, Zea on the eastern side, separated from Pi- 
raeeus by a narrow isthmus, and Munychia (now Phanari) 
still further to the E. The position of Piraeus and of the 
Athenian harbors has been usually misunderstood. In con- 
sequence of a statement in an ancient scholiast it was gene- 
rally supposed that the great harbor of Piraeeus was di- 
vided into three smaller harbors, Zea for corn vessels, Aph- 
rodisium for merchant ships in general, and Cantharus for 
ships of war ; but this division of the Piraeeus is now re- 
jected by the best topographers. Zea was a harbor totally 
distinct from the Piraeus, as has been already stated: 
the northern portion of the Pyraeus seems to have been 
used by the merchant vessels, and the Cantharus, where the 
ships of war were stationed, was on the southern side of the 
harbor, near the entrance. The entrance of the harbor, 
which was narrow by nature, was rendered still, narrower 
by two mole-heads, to which a chain was attached to pre- 
vent the ingress of hostile ships. The town or demus of 
Piraeus was surrounded with strong fortifications by The- 
mistocles, and was connected with Athens by means of the 
celebrated Long Walls (ra fxaKpa raxrj) under the adminis- 
tration of Pericles. The town possessed a large pojDula- 
tion and many public and private buildings. The most im- 
portant of its public buildhigs were the Agora Hi23podamia, 
a temple of Zeus Soter, a large stoa, a theatre, the Phre- 
attys or tribunal for the admirals, the arsenal, the docks, 
&G. It has already been said that the harbor of Zea lay 
between the Piraeus and Munychia, which was the smallest 
and most easterly of the three, and is now called Phanari. 
The entrance to the harbor of Munychia was very narrow, 

city of Attica ? 5. Hoav many ports or harbors had Athens ? What were their 
names ? 6. Give some accounts of these ports, 7. What and where was Phalerum ? 



GEAECIA. 65 

and could be closed with a chain. The hill of Munychia 
contained several public buildings. 

7. Phalerum {^dXrjpov: ^aX-qp^vs) was the most easterly 
of the harbors of Athens, and the one chiefly used by the 
Athenians before the Persian wars. Phalerum is usually 
described as the most easterly of the three harbors in the 
peninsula of Piraeus : but this is obviously incorrect. Phale- 
rum lay S. E. of the three which we have already named, 
nearer the city, at Hagios Georgios. After the establish- 
ment by Themistocles of the three harbors in the peninsula 
of Piraeus, Phalerum was not much used ; but it was con- 
nected with the city by means of a wall called the Phalerian 
Wall, (^aXyjpLKov Tctxo?.) Phaleron or Phalerus was also 
an Attic demus, containing temples of Zeus, Demeter, and 
other deities. 

8. The celebrated Long Walls (Longi Muri, Ta 
MaKpa TeLxrj) which connected Athens with its several ports, 
were first planned and commenced by Themistocles after 
the termination of the Persian war. His object was evi- 
dently to prevent any invading army from intercepting the 
communication between the city and the Piraeus ; but he 
did not live to terminate this great undertaking, which was 
continued after his death by Cimon, and at length completed 
by Pericles. One of these long walls was designated by the 
name of Piraic, and sometimes by that of the northern 
wall, popeiov Tetxog; its length was forty stadia, (about 5 
miles.) The other was called the Phaleric or southern wall, 
and measured 35 stadia, (about 4 miles.) Between these 
two, at a short distance from the former and parallel 
to it, another wall was erected, thus making two walls lead- 
ing to the Piraeus (sometimes called ra a-KeXr]) with a 
narrow passage between them. 

9. There were, therefore, three long walls in all; but 
the name of Long Walls seems to have been confined to the 
two leading to the Piraeus, while the one leading to Phale- 
rum was distinguished by the name of the Phalerian Wall, 
[to ^aX7]pLKov T€Lxo<s.) lu tho Pcloponncsian war, we learn 
from Thucydides that the exterior or Piraic wall alone was 
guarded, as that was the only direction in which the enemy 
could advance, there being no passage to the south and 
east of Athens, except through a difficult pass between the 
city and Mount Hymettus, or by making the circuit of that 

8. How or by wliat were the principal harbors connected with, the city ? 9. How 
many long walls were there, and what is said of the application of the name ? 



66 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

mountain, which would have been a very hazardous imder- 
taking. The Long Walls remained entire about fifty-four 
years after their completion, till the capture of Athens in 
the Peloponnesian war, eleven years after which Conon re- 
built them with the assistance of Pharnabazus. In the 
siege of Athens by Sylla, they were again broken down, 
and almost entirely destroyed. Col. Leake informs us that 
some vestiges of this great work are still to be seen. 

10. The entire circuit of the walls was 174^ stadia, 
(nearly 22 miles,) of which 43 stadia (nearly 5i miles) 
belonged to the city proper, 75 stadia (9^- miles) to the 
long walls, and 56| stadia (7 miles) to Piraeus, Munychia, 
and Phalerum. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war 
Athens contained ten thousand houses, which, at the rate of 
twelve inhabitants to a house, would give a population of 
120,000, though some writers make the inhabitants as many 
as 180,000. 

11. Aegaleos (Aegaleus) is a mountain in Attica, op- 
posite Salamis, noted as the sj^ot from which Xerxes wit- 
nessed the defeat of his fleet b. c. 480. Modern name jSkar- 
manga. 

12. The Thriasian Plain {to ©ptao-iov TreStW, Thria- 
sius CamjDus) derived its name from the demus or village 
of Thria : it was a part of the Eleusinian plain, extending 
between the range of Aegaleus and Eleusis, along the bor- 
ders of the bay, and to the IST. of it, and was famed for its 
fertility. 

13. Eleusis was situated IsT. "W. of Athens, on the 
coast, near the frontiers of Megara and the mouth of the 
Eleusinian Cephissus. Its origin is of the highest antiquity, 
as it appears to have existed as early as the time of Cecrops. 
It possessed a magnificent temple of Demeter, (Ceres,) and 
it gave its name to the great festival and mysteries of the 
Eleusinia, which were celebrated in honor of Demeter and 
her daughter Persephone, (Proserpina.) It was death to di- 
vulge these mysteries, a festival peculiar to Eleusis while 
this was an independent state ; but after the Eleusinians 
had been conquered by the Athenians in the reign of Erech- 
theus, the Eleusinia became a festival common to both 
cities, though the superintendence of the festival remained 
with the descendants of Eumolpus, the king of Eleusis. 

10. "Wliat was the extent and the population of Athens ? 11. Where -was Mount 
Aegaleos, and for what noted? 12. Whence did the Thriasian plain derive its 
name, and for what was it noted y 18. Point out and give an account of Eleusis. 14. 



GEAECIA. 57 

14. Opposite the Eleusinian coast was the island of Sa- 
lami s, now Koluri^ called in earlier times Sciras and 
Cychrea, from the heroes ScirusandCychreus; also Pity- 
ussa, from its abounding in firs. It had been already cele- 
brated in the earliest period of Grecian history from the 
colony of the Aeacidae, who settled there before the siege 
of Troy. The possession of Salamis was once obstinately 
contested by the Athenians and Megareans, and Strabo 
affirms that both parties interpolated Homer, in order to 
prove from his poems that it belonged to them. Conquered 
by Solon, according to some by Pisistratus, it ever after 
remained subject to the Athenians. When Xerxes invaded 
Greece, the Athenians retired to this island with their 
families. 

15. It is chiefly memorable on account of the great bat- 
tle fought off its coast, in which the Persian fleet of Xerxes 
was defeated by the Greeks b. c. 480. The battle took 
place in the strait between the eastern part of the island 
and the coast of Attica, and the Grecian fleet was drawn 
up in the small bay in front of the town of Salamis. A tro- 
phy was erected to commemorate this splendid victory on 
the isle of Salamis, near the temple of Diana, and opposite 
to Cynosura, where the strait is narrowest. Here it was 
seen by Pausanias, and some of its vestiges were observed 
by Sir W. Gell, who reports that it consisted of a column 
on a circular base. 

16. Laurium, celebrated for its silver mines, was a 
range of bills in the southern part of Attica, a little N. of the 
promontory of Sunium. In early times these mines were 
so productive that every Athenian citizen received annually 
10 drachmae. On the advice of Themistocles the Athe- 
nians applied this money to equip 200 triremes shortly be- 
fore the invasion of Xerxes. In the time of Xenophon the 
produce of the mines was 100 talents, ($105,660.) They 
gradually became less and less productive, and in the time 
of Strabo, (b. c. 54 to a. d. 24,) they yielded nothing. 

17. Silnium, one of the most celebrated sites in Attica, 
forms the extreme point of that province towards the S.* 
Near the promontory stood the town of the same name 
with a harbor. Regattas were held here in the minor 
Panathenaic festivals. Off Sunium is an insular rock, known 

Where was Salamis, and for what is it famed ? 15. For what is the island chiefly 
memorable, and what was erectod in commemoration of the event ? 16. Point out 
and give an account of Laurium. 17. Where and what was Sunium ? 18. Where 
3* 



58 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

to the ancients by tlie name of Patroclns, but called by 
the modern Greeks Gaidaro-Nesi^ the Ass's Island. The 
modern name of Smiium is Ccqjo Colonna^ from the ruins 
of the temple of Minerva which are still to be seen on its 
summit. 

18. On doubling cape Sunium, sailing eastward, the first 
harbor which presented itself was Panormus, i. e. "-4?^ 
PoTt^ " or a place always fit for landing, (Ilavop/xos.) It is 
now Porto Itcmhti^ and lies opposite the southern extrem- 
ity of Euboea. 

19. Brauron was a demus in Attica, on the eastern 
coast, on the river Erasmus. It was celebrated in my- 
thology as the sj^ot where Iphigenia first landed after her 
escape from Tauris with the statue of Diana. From this 
circimistance the goddess was here held in peculiar vene- 
ration under the title of Bram-onea or Brauronia. The 
modem site is called Vraona or Vrmia. 

20. Marathon was a demus of Attica, situated on a 
bay on the eastern coast, 22 miles from Athens by one 
road, and 26 miles by another. Leake thinks the site 
of the ancient town of Marathon was probably not at the 
modern village of Marathona, but a place caUed Yrana, 
a little to the south of Marathon, where some place 
Bram'on. Marathon was situated in a plain, which extends 
along the sea-shore, about 6 miles in length, and from 3 
miles to 1^ in breadth. It is surrounded on the other three 
sides by rocky hills and rugged mountains. Two marshes 
bound the extremity of the plain. 

21. Through the centre of the plain runs a small brook, 
called As opus. In this plain was fought the celebrated 
battle between the Persians and Athenians, b. c. 490. The 
Persians were dra^vn up on the j^lain, and the Athenians on 
some portion of the high ground above the plain ; but the 
exact ground occupied by the two armies cannot be identi- 
fied, notwithstanding the investigations of modern travel- 
lers. The tumulus raised over the Athenians who fell in 
the battle, is still to be seen. 

22. Rhamntis was situated on a smaU rocky peninsula 
on the eastern coast of Attica 60 stadia from Marathon. 
It derived its name fr'om the rhamnus, a kind of prickly 
shrub in which it abounded. It possessed a celebrated 

and what was Panonmis ? 19. WTiere was Branron, and noted for what ? 20. 
Where was Marathon, and noted for what ? 21. What flowed through this plain, 
and what great event occurred here ? 22. Point out and give an account of 



GEAECIA. 69 

temple of Nemesis, who is hence called by the Latin poets 
Rhamnusia dea or virgo. In this temple there was a colos- 
sal statue of* the goddess, made, in the highest style of the 
art, by Agoracritus, the disciple of Phidias. There are 
still remains of this temple, as well as of a smaller one to 
the same goddess. 

23. The celebrated Hymettus Mons, or Mount Hy- 
mettus^ forms the southern portion of the considerable 
chain which, under the several names ofParnes, Penteli- 
cus, and Brilessus, traverses nearly the whole of Attica 
jfrom IsT. E. to S. W. It was divided into two summits, one 
of which was Hymettus, properly so called ; the other, Any- 
dros, or the dry Hymettus. The former is now Trelovoimi^ 
the latter Lamprovouni. Hymettus was especially famous 
for its fragrant flowers and excellent honey. It produced 
also marbles much esteemed by the Romans, and, accord- 
ing to some accounts, contained silver mines. 

24. Acharnae ('A;)(apmt) was the principal demus of 
Attica, 60 stadia IN", of Athens. It possessed a rough and 
warhke population, who were able to furnish 3,000 hoplitae 
at the commencement of the Peloponnesian war. Their 
land was fertile, and they carried on considerable traffic in 
charcoal. 

25. Decelea, now Biala-Castro, lay N". W. of Athens, 
on the borders of Boeotia, near the sources of the Cephisus. 
This town was always considered of great importance, 
from its situation on the road to Euboea, whence the 
Athenians derived most of their supplies ; when, therefore, 
by the advice of Alcibiades, it was occupied and garrisoned 
by a Lacedaemonian force, they suffered great loss and in- 
convenience. Thucydides reports that Decelea was visible 
from Athens: and Xenophon observes that the sea and 
Piraeus could be seen from thence. Sir W. Gell describes 
this place as situated on a round detached hiU, connected 
by a sort of isthmus with Mount Parnes. 

26. Phy le, a strongly-fortified place, was situated on the 
confines of Boeotia and on the southwestern slope of Mount 
Parnes. It is memorable as the place which Thrasybulus 
and the Athenian patriots seized soon after the Pelopon- 
nesian war, B. c. 404, and whence they directed their ope- 
rations against the thirty tyrants at Athens. Sir W. Gell 

Ehamnus. 23. Point out and give an account of Hymettus. 24. Point out and 
give an account of Acharnae. 25. Where was Decelea or Deceleia, and how 
noted ? 26. Where and what was Phyle ? Grive an account of it. 27. Where was 



60 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHT. 

says that the fortress of Phyle is now called JBigla Castro^ 
aud gives the following description : " It is situated on a 
lofty precipice, and, though small, must have been almost 
impregnable, as it can only be approached by an isthmus on 
the east. Hence is a most magnificent view of the plain of 
Athens, with the Acropolis and Hymettus, and the sea in 
the distance." 

27. Mount Parnes, now Nozea^ the highest moun- 
tain of Attica, in some parts as high as 4,000 feet, rises on 
the X. E. frontier of that province, and is, in fact, a con- 
tinuation of Mount Cithaeron, from which it extended 
eastward, as far as the coast at Rhamnus. It was well 
wooded, abounded in game, and on its lower slopes pro- 
duced excellent wine. 

28. On the frontiers of Boeotia, and on the road from 
Eleusis to Plataeae, was the town of E lent her ae, which 
appears to have once belonged to Boeotia, but finally be- 
came included within the hmits of Attica. Pausanias re- 
ports that the Eleutherians were not conquered by the 
Athenians, but voluntarily united themselves to that people 
from their constant enmity to the Thebans. According to 
the legend, Bacchus was born in this town. Leake difiers 
from Gell and others as regards the site of ancient Eleu- 
therae, and fixes it at the modern Myupoli. 

11.— Eitboea. 

1. Euboea^ the largest island of the Aegaean sea, ex- 
tends along the coasts of Attica, Boeotia, and the southern 
part of Thessaly. From these countries it is separated by 
the Euboean sea, which is called the Euripus in its nar- 
rowest part. 

2. This island is about 90 miles in length, and its ex- 
treme breadth is 30 miles, but in the narrowest part it is 
only 4 miles across. Throughout its entire length runs a 
lofty range of mountains, which rise in one part as high as 
7,266 feet above the sea. It contains, nevertheless, many 
fertile plains, and was celebrated in antiquity for the excel- 
lence of its pasturage and cornfields, 

3. The most ancient name of Euboea, according to 

Mount Parnes, and for -what was it famed? 28. Point out and give an account of 
Eleutherae. 

1. Where was Euboea, and how separated from the main-land ? 2. What are 
its dimensions, and what the nature of the surface ? 3. What were the earliest 



GEAECIA. 61 

Strabo, was Macris, which it obtained, as he affirms, from 
its great length in comparison with its breadth. Besides 
this, it was known at different times by the various appella^ 
tions of Oche, Ellopia, Asopis and Abantia. Homer, 
who calls the island Euboea, always employs the appellation 
of Abantes to denote its inhabitants. 

4. The modern name of Euboea is Negropont^ formed 
by a series of corruptions from the name Euripus, now 
Egripo, which designated the narrow channel that sepa- 
rates the island from the Boeotian coast, from which it is 
said to have been severed by an earthquake. 

5. Hestiaea, one of the most considerable of the Eu- 
boean cities, was situated in the north-eastern extremity of 
the island. It is said to have been founded by an Athenian 
colony in the district of Ellopia, which once gave its name 
to the whole country. After the retreat of the Grecian 
fleet from Artemisium, the town fell into the hands of the 
Persians ; but on the termination of the Persian war, it be- 
came, with the rest of Euboea, subject to Athens. Hestiaea 
probably took an active part in the attempt subsequently 
made by the Euboeans to shake off the galling yoke of the 
Athenians, for Pericles treated the inhabitants with great 
severity, expelled them from their possessions, and sent 
Athenian colonists to occupy the lands which they had oc- 
cupied. The unfortunate exiles probably withdrew to 
Macedonia. The name of their town was now changed to 
Oreus, which at first was that of a small place dependent on 
Hestiaea at the foot of Mount Telethrius. 

6. In the territory of Hestiaea was the celebrated pro- 
montory of Artemisium, at the point where the strait 
between Euboea and Thessaly begins to narrow. The 
name was derived from a temple dedicated to Diana, which 
stood on the headland, and was applied to the whole of 
the coast in that immediate vicinity. It was off this coast 
that the Greeks defeated the fleet of Xerxes, b. c. 480. The 
modern name of the promontory is Amoui, according to 
recent maps. 

V. On the western coast, S. of Telethrius Mons, was 
Aegae, celebrated for the worship of Neptune, who had 
here a splendid temple, and was hence called Aegaeus. 
Strabo asserts that Aegae gave its name to the Aegaean 
sea. Its present site is AMo. 

names of Euboea? 4. What is its modern name, and how did it originate? 
6. Point out Hestiaea, and give some account of it. 6. Point out and give an ac- 



62 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

8. Chalcis, now JEJgripo or Negroponte^ the most cele- 
brated and important city of Euboea, was situated on 
the narrowest part of the Euripus, and united with the 
mainland by a bridge. It was a very ancient town, 
originally inhabited by Abantes or Curetes, and colonized 
after the siege of Troy by Attic lonians under the Cothus. 
Its flourishing condition at an early period is attested by 
the numerous colonies which it planted in various parts of 
the Mediterranean. It founded so many cities in the penin- 
sula in Macedonia between the Strymonic and Thermaio 
gulfs, that the whole peninsula was called Chalcidice. In 
Italy it founded Cumae, and in Sicily, Il^axos.* 

9. The Euripus was supposed to have been formed by 
an earthquake or some other convulsion of nature, which 
tore Euboea from the Boeotian coast. Several of the an- 
cients have reported that the tide in this strait ebbed and 
flowed seven times in the day, and as many times during 
the night, and that the current was so strong as to arrest the 
progress of ships in full sail. Livy, however, contradicts 
this popular notion, and attributes the variableness of the 
current to the efiect of winds, which are so violent as to 

* From Herodotus we learn that the Chalcidians, having joined the 
Boeotians in their depredations on the coast of Attica soon after the expul- 
sion of the Pisistratidae, afforded the Athenians just grounds for reprisals. 
They accordingly crossed over into Euhoea with a large force, and alter de- 
feating the Chalcidians, occupied the lands of the wealthiest inhabitants, and 
distributed them among four thousand of their own citizens. These, how- 
ever, were obliged to evacuate the island on the arrival of the Persian fleet 
under Datis and Artaphernes. The Chalcidians, after the termination of the 
Persian war, became again dependent on Athens with the rest of Euboea, 
and did not regain their liberty till the close of the Peloponnesian war, 
when they asserted their freedom, and, aided by the Boeotians, fortified the 
Euripus and established a communication with the continent by throwing a 
wooden bridge across the channel. Towers were placed at each extremity, 
and room was left in the middle for one ship only to pass. This work 
was undertaken in the third year of the ninety-second Olympiad, or 410 
years b. c. 

Chalcis was a place of great military importance, as it commanded the 
navigation between the N. and S. of Greece, and hence it was often taken 
and retaken by the different parties contending for the supremacy in Greece. 
The consul Mummius, the destroyer of Corinth, treated the Chalcidians with 
great severity for having favored the Achaeans in their conquest with Eome; 
and the epitomist of Livy asserts that their town was actually destroyed. 
Procopius names it among the towns restored by Justinian. In the middle 
ages it assumed the name of Euripus, which was corriipted into Egripo, and 
in process of time to Negroponte, the modern appellation of the whole island, 
as well as that of its capital. 

count of Artemisium. 7. Where was Aegae, celebrated for what, and giving 
name to what ? 8. Point out and give an account of Chalcis. 9. Point out and 
describe the Euripus. 10. Where and what waa Eretria ; by whom was it founded, 



GEAECIA. 63 

cause the sea to rush through the channel like a mountain- 
torrent. * 

10. To the S. E. of Chalcia was Eretria, now Pa- 
laeo- Castro, an ancient and important town on the Eu- 
ripus, with a celebrated harbor Porthmos, now Porto 
JBiifalo ; it was founded by the Athenians, but had a 
mixed population, among which was a considerable number 
of Dorians. 

11. Its commerce and navy raised it in early times to 
importance : it contended with Chalcis for the supremacy 
of Euboea : it ruled over several of the neighboring islands, 
and planted colonies in Macedonia and Italy. It was de- 
stroyed by the Persians, 490 b. c, and most of the inhabit- 
ants were led away captive ; these were, however, treated 
with clemency by Darius, and allowed to settle in the Cis- 
sian territory. Those who were left behind built, at a little 
distance from the old city, the town of New Eretria, which, 
however, never became a place of importance. 

12 Carystus,now Karysto or Castel Hosso, was a town 
on the southern coast of Euboea, at the foot of Mount 
Oche. It was founded, in remote antiquity, by Dryopes, 
a Pelasgic people, and called, according to tradition, after 
Carystus, son of Chiron. 

13. In the neighborhood was excellent marble, which 
was exported in large quantities, and the mineral called as- 
bestos was also found here. We learn from Strabo, that 
the spot which- furnished the marble was named Marma- 
rium, and that a temple had been erected here to Apollo 
Marmarius. Marmarium Avas exactly opposite to Halae 
Araphenides in Attica. 

* The Jesuit Babin, who had a favorable opportunity of observing the 
flux and reflux of the strait, agrees with Livy so far as to show the error of 
the common opinion entertained by the ancients, that the change of current 
occurred seven times a day, but he does not confirm the ancient historian as 
to its total irregularity and its entire dependence on the winds, which doubt- 
less, however, have some effect. Babin seems to have ascertained that the 
tide was sometimes regular as in the ocean, and other times irregular, and 
that both the regular and irregular tides followed the phases of the moon, 
though not to such degree that the tides could be predicted to within a day 
or two before or after the changes : the regular days were generally nineteen 
in the month, the irregular eleven, and the former were in the first and third 
quarters, the latter in the second and fourth. According to some modern 
writers, the water sometimes runs as much as 8 miles ip. an hour. 

and what sort of population had it ? 11. "What is said of its commerce ; by whom 
was the city destroyed, and what was done with its inhabitants? 12. Point out 
and give an account of Carystus. 13. "What was found in the neighborhood? 
14. What promontories were in this vicinity ? 



64: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

14. In this vicinity was the promontory of Geraestus, 
which terminates the island to the S. W. : now Cape Man- 
telo: also the promontory of Caphareus, now Capo 
d'' Oro^ so famed for the destruction of the Grecian fleet on 
its return from Troy. 



1 ^.-—I^eloponnesus, 

1. Peloponnesus, in Greek r) H^XoTrovvrja-og^ prior to 
the migration of the Phrygian Pelops, from whom it derived 
its name, is said to have borne that of Apia, which, 
according to Aeschylus, it obtained from Apis, son of 
Apollo. In shape it resembles the leaf of a plane tree, 
being indented by numerous bays on all sides. It is from 
this circumstance that the modern name of Morea is doubt- 
less derived, that word signifying a mulberry leaf. 

2. The principal mountains of Peloponnesus are those 
of Oyllene, now Zyria, and Erymanthus now Ole- 
nos, in Arcadia, and Taygetus now jSt. Slias in La- 
conia. 

3. Its rivers are the Alpheus, now JRufia^ traversing 
Arcadia and Elis: the Eurotas, ^lo^Y Iri ov JBasilipotOr 
mOy which takes its source in the mountains that separate 
Arcadia from Laconia, and, confining its course within the 
latter province, falls into the Sinus Laconicus: and the 
Pamisus, now JPirnatza, a river of Messenia. 

4. The Peloponnesus contains but one small lake, that 
of Stymphalus, now ZaraTca, in Arcadia. 

5. Corinthia {KopivOta) embraced the greater part of 
the Isthmus of Corinth, with the adjacent part of the Pelo- 
ponnesus : it was bounded IN", by Megaris and the Corin- 
thian gulf, S. by Argolis, W. by Sicyonia and Phliasia, and 
E. by the Saronic gulf 

6. Ancient writers do not agree in their estimate of the 
breadth of the Isthmus ; the real distance, however, in the 
narrowest part cannot be less than 6 miles, as the modern 
name of JTexamilion sufiiciently denotes. 

7. Corinth was a mountain city. ISTot that, as in the 
case of other Grecian cities, the Acropolis occupied a 

1. Wliat is the derivation of the name Peloponnesus, and what is the form of 
the country ? 2. Name the principal mountains of Peloponnesus. 3. Name the 
chief rivers and point thera out. 4. What lake in Peloponnesus ? 6. What and 
where was Corinthia, and how was it bomided ? 6. What was the width of the 
Isthmus, and hence it was how called ? 7. Point out and describe Corinth, 



GRAECIA. 65 

heiglit, whilst the city was spread over the surrounding or 
adjacent plain; but a colossal mountain, 1770 feet in height, 
and rising above the plain of the Isthmus, bore upon its hel- 
met-shaped summit the Acropolis, the lower city being 
spread over its broad foot, which somewhat resembled a 
table, and having an elevation of 170 feet, declined ab- 
ruptly toward the bay of Lechaion {Lechaeum). The 
walls, which included the Acrocorinthus, were 86 stadia 
(10 miles) in circumference. 

8. Its favorable position between two seas, the difficulty 
of carrying goods round the Peloponnesus, and the facility 
with which they could be transported across the isthmus, 
raised Corinth in very early times to great commercial 
prosperity, and made it the emporium of the trade be- 
tween Europe and Asia. 

9. Corinth had two harbors, Cenchreae and Schoe- 
nus on the E., or Saronic gulf, and one, Lechaeum, on 
the W. or Corinthian gulf. Some writers, regarding Cen- 
chreae and Schoenus as entkely distinct, give Corinth 
three harbors. Schoenus lay a little to the ivT. of Cen- 
chreae, which is now called Cechriaes. 

10. In Homer Corinth is called Ephyra fE^vp?^). 

11. Strabo says that at the narrowest part of the isth- 
mus (at Schoenus) the Diolcos, or land-carriage for trans- 
porting vessels across the isthmus, was established. This 
process could be accomplished only with the vessels usually 
employed in commerce, or with lembi, which were light 
ships of war, chiefly used ^yJ the Illyrians and Macedonians. 

12. The tediousness and expense attending this process, 
and still more, probably, the danger and difficulty of the 
circumnavigation of Peloponnesus, led to frequent attempts 
at diffiirent periods, for effecting a junction between the 
two seas ; but all proved equally unsuccessful, owing, as 
Pausanias insinuates, to divine interposition. 

13. According to Strabo, Demetrius Poliorcetes aban- 
doned the enterprise, because it was found that the two 
gulfs were not on the same level. The project was sub- 
sequently renewed by Julius Caesar, Caligula and I^ero ; 
the latter is even said to have encouraged the workmen 
by digging himself. Travellers inform us that some re- 



8. What \vere the advantages of its situation ? 9. Point out and name its harbors. 
10. What was the earlier name of Corinth ? 11. Where and what was the 
Diolcus? 12. For the purpose of getting rid of this process, what was frequently- 
attempted ? 13. Why did Poliorcetes abandon the enterprise ; by whom was it 



66 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

mains of the canal undertaken by this emi^eror are still 
visible, reaching from the sea, IST. E. of Lechaeum, about 
half a mile across the isthmus. 

14. We hear also of various attempts made to raise 
fortifications across the Isthmus for the security of the Pelo- 
ponnesus when threatened with invasion. This was first 
undertaken before the battle of Salamis, when, as Herodotus 
relates, the Peloponnesian confederates, having first blocked 
up the Scu'onian way, collected together a vast multitude, 
who worked night and day, without intermission, on these 
fortifications. Every kind of material, such as stones, bricks 
and timber, were employed, and the interstices filled up 
with earth and sand. 

15. Many years after, the Macedonians and their allies 
again endeavored to fortify the Isthmus from Cenchreae to 
Lechaeum against Epaminondas ; but this measure was 
rendered fruitless by the skill and conduct of that general, 
who forced a passage across the Oneian mountains. Cleo- 
menes also threw up trenches and lines from Acrocorinthus 
to the Oneian mountains, in order to prevent the Mace- 
donians, under Antigonus Doson, from penetrating into the 
j)eninsula. 

16. The isthmus derived great celebrity from the games 
which were held there every five years in honor of Palae- 
mon, or Melicerte and J^Teptune. 

17. When the Achaeans became involved in a destruc- 
tive war with the Romans, Corinth was the last hold of 
their tottering republic, and had its citizens vrisely submit- 
ted to the ofiers proposed by the victorious Metellus, it 
might have been preserved : but the deputation of that 
general being treated with scorn and even insult, the senate 
decreed the destruction of the city, and entrusted the 
execution of this sentence to the consul L. Mummius. 
Accordingly, in 116 n. c. this general took and destroyed 
Corinth, and treated it in the most barbarous manner. Its 
inhabitants were sold as slaves : its works of art, which 
were not destroyed by the Roman soldiery, were conveyed 
to Rome : its buildings were razed to the ground : and 
thus was destroyed the " lumen totius Graeciae," as Cicero 
caUs the city. For a century it lay in ruins : only the 

reneTved, and what do modern traveHers eay of this locality ? 14. VThat other 
Btructui'BB were raised on the Isthmus ; for what purpose ? 15. ^Vho made the 
second attempt of this kind, and who engaged in this work after them ? 16. What 
contributed greatly to the celebrity of the Isthmus? 17. 'SVhen, why, and by 



GKAECIA. 67 

buildings on the Acropolis and a few temples remained 
standing. In 46 b. c. it was rebuilt by Caesar, who peopled 
it with a colony of veterans and descendants of freedmen. 
The site of Corinth is indicated by seven Doric columns, 
which are the only remains of the ancient city. 

18. The greatness of Corinth at an early period is at- 
tested by numerous colonies, Ambracia, Corcyra, Sy- 
racusae, Apollonia, Potidaea, &c. The most cele- 
brated of these colonies were Corcyra and Syracuse. 

A. — Achaia. 

1. Achaia was first called Aegialus, either from a 
hero of that name, or, more probably from the maritime 
situation of the country ; for AtytaXos denotes the sea-shore, 
or a coast-land. The earliest inhabitants of the country 
were a Pelasgic race ; but as these were afterwards blended 
with a large Ionian colony from Attica, the name of Aegia- 
lus was lost in that of Ionia. 

2. On the conquest of the greater part of Peloponnesus 
by the Heraclidae and the Dorians 80 years after the 
Trojan war, and b. c. 1,104, many of the Achaei under 
Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, having been driven from 
their dwelling-places in Laconia and Argolis, took possession, 
of the northern coast of Peloponnesus, and then the name 
Aegialus or Aegialea, was changed into Achaia. 

3. When the Romans had become masters of Greece, 
the Roman province of Achaia included Peloponnesus, and 
northern Greece S. of Thessaly. It was formed on the dis- 
solution of the Achaean League, in b. c. 146, and hence 
derived its name. 

4. Achaia was bounded on the E". by the Sinus Co- 
rinthiacus, on the S, by Elis and Arcadia, on the W. by 
the Ionian sea, and on the E. by Sicyonia. 

PLACES 11^ ACHAIA. 

5. Pellene, the most easterly of the 12 Achaean cities, 
and bordering on Sicyonia, was situated on a lofty and pre- 
cipitous hill about 60 stadia from the sea, and strongly for- 
tified. In the Peloponnesian war, Pellene sided with Sparta. 

whom was Corinth destroyed, and by whom restored? 18. Where were the 
colonies of Corinth established, and which were the most celebrated ? 

1. What was the earliest name of Achaia, and why was it so called? 
2. When and how was the name changed into Achaia ? 3. Under Eoman rule, what 
"was meant by Achaia, and why was it so called ? 4. How was Achaia bounded ? 



68 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Between Pellene iind Aegae there was a smaller town of 
the same name, where the celebrated Pellenian cloaks 
(TreXXrjvLaKal x^atmt) were made, which were given as prizes 
to the victors in the games celebrated at this place in honor 
of Mercmy. 

6. Aristonautae, the harbor or port-tow^n of Pellene, 
was 60 stadia from that town : it was so called from the 
Argonauts having touched there in the course of their 
voyage. 

1. The river Crathis rises in a momitain of the same 
name in Arcadia, receiving the Styx, and, flowing down 
from E'onacris, falls into the sea near Aegae. It was 
from this stream that the Italian Crathis, which flowed 
between Crotona and Sybaris, derived its appellation. 

8. He lice w^as near the sea, N". W. of Aegae, and was 
the ancient capital of Achaia. It was here that the gen- 
eral meeting of the lonians was convened, whilst yet they 
were in j^ossession of Aegialus. A prodigious influx of the 
sea, caused by a violent earthquake, overwhelmed and 
completely destroyed Helice, together with Bruma, two 
years before the battle of Leuctra, Olymp. ci. 4., or 373 
E. c. It was said that some vestiges of the submerged city 
were to be seen long after the terrible event had taken 
place. As the event took place in the night, it is not likely 
that any of the inhabitants escaped. The earth sunk into 
the ground, and the place on which the cities stood was 
ever afterwards covered by the sea. 

9. Aegium, after the destruction of Helice the capital 
of Achaia, was also on the coast, to the N". W. of Helice. 
For a long time the general states of Achaia held their as- 
semblies in this town, until a law was made by Philopoe- 
men, by w^hich each of the confederated towns became in 
its turn the place of rendezvous. 

10. The j^romontory of Drepanum (ApcTravoi/, a sickle), 
derived its name fi'om the fable of Saturn's scythe. It is 
still called Brepano. A little to the W. of Drepanum 
was the more celebrated point of Rhium, surnamed 
Achaicum, to distinguish it from the Molycrian or 
Aetolian Rhium on the opposite coast, from which it was 
separated by a narrow strait of only 7 stadia, considerably 

5. Point out and describe Pellene, 6. What and where was its harbor, and what 
is the derivation of its name ? 7. Where was the Crathis, and to what did it give 
name? 8. Where and what was Helice, and what was its fate? 9. Where was 
Aegium, and famed for what ? 10. Point out. Drepanum Promontorium. 11. 



GEAECIA. 69 

less than an English mile. This strait is now called the 
Little Dardanelles. 

11. Patrae, now Patras^ was situated W. of Rhium 
near the opening of the Corinthian gulf, and is said to have 
been built on the site of three towns, called Aroe, Anthea 
and Messatis, which had been founded by the lonians when 
they were in possession of the country. On their expulsion 
by the Achaeans, these three small towns fell into the 
hands of Patreus, an illustrious chief of that people ; and 
he, uniting them into one city, called it by his name. 

12. Its maritime situation, opposite the coast of Aetolia 
and Acarnania, rendered it a very advantageous port for 
communicating with these countries ; and, in the Social 
War, Philip of Macedon frequently landed his troops there 
in his exj)editions into Peloponnesus. In consequence of 
assisting the Aetolians against the Gauls in b. c. 279, Patrae 
became so weakened that most of the inhabitants deserted 
the town, and took up their abodes in the neighboring vil- 
lages. Under the Komans it continued to be an insignifi- 
cant place till the time of Augustus, who rebuilt the town 
after the battle of Actium, again collected its inhabitants, 
added to them those of Rhypae, and bestowed upon the 
town the privileges of a Roman colony. Strabo describes 
Patrae in his time as a flourishing and populous town with 
a good harbor. The modern Patras is still an important 
place, but contains few remains of antiquity. 

13. Dymeor Dymae (Atj/^t/ or AC/x-at: from Suco, 8{;/>ti, 
to set), was situated in Western Achaia about 40 stadia 
beyond the mouth of the Pirus. Strabo is of opinion that 
the appellation of Dymc, which was previously called 
Pale a, had reference to its western situation wi^h regard 
to the other cities of the province, and adds that it was 
originally called Stratos. 

B.— Sicyonia. 

1. Sicyonia was a small district in the IsT. E. of Pelo- 
ponnesus, bounded on the E. by the territory of Corinth, 
on the W. by Achaia, on the S. by the territory of Phlius 
and Cleonae, and on the N. by the Corinthian gulf. 

2. The chief town of Sicyonia was Sicyon (StKi;ojv), 

Where was Ehium, and styled what? 12. The strait how wide in this place and 
how called? 13. Where was Patrae, and how famed? 14. What were the ad- 
vantages of its situation, and what was its fate in tho Social War ? 15. Where 
was Dyrao, and why was it so called ? 

1. Wliat and where was Sicyonia, and how bounded ? 2. What was its chief 



YO ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

wHcli was situated a little to the W. of the river Asopns, 
and at the distance of 20, or, according to others, 12 stadia 
from the sea. 

3. The ancient city, which was situated in the plain, 
was destroyed by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and a new city, 
which bore, for a short time, the name of Demetrias, was 
built by him on the high ground close to the Acropolis. 
Sicyon was one of the most ancient cities of Greece. 

4. It is said to have been originally called Aegialea or 
Aegiali (AtytaAeta^ AlytaXoc), after an ancient king, Aegialeus; 
to have been subsequently named Mecone, and to have 
been finally called Sicyon from an Athenian of this name. 

5. Sicyon is represented by Homer as forming part of 
the empire of Agamemnon ; but on the return of the Hera- 
clidae it became subject to the Dorians. It was the native 
town of Aratus, who united it to the Achaean league in 
251 B. c. 

6. Sicyon was for a long time the chief seat of Grecian 
art. The town was likewise celebrated for the taste and 
skiU displayed in the various articles of dress made by its 
inhabitants, among which we find mention of a particular 
kind of shoe, that was much prized in aU parts of Greece. 

C— EUs. 

1. Elis, a country on the western coast of Pelopon- 
nesus, was bounded by Achaia on the 'N., by Arcadia on the 
E., by Messenia on the S., and by the Mare Ionium on the 
W. It thus occupied that portion of the Peninsula which 
is situated between the rivers Larissus, Misso^ and Neda, 
£uzi^ which served to separate it, the former from Achaia, 
the lattei* from Messenia. 

2. In earher times this tract of country was divided 
into several districts or principalities, each occupied by a 
separate clan or people. Of these the Caucones were 
probably the most ancient and also the most widely dissem- 
inated, since we find them occupying both extremities of 
the province, and extending even into Achaia. N'ext to 
these were the Epei, who are placed by Homer in the 
northern part of the province, and next to Achaia. Pausa- 

town and where ? 3. Give some account of Sicyon. 4. What is said of its name? 
5. How doe3 Homer represent this city, and what did it hecome after the return of 
the Herachdae? 6. What was Sicyon for a long time, and for what else was it 
celebrated ? 

1, How was Elis bounded? 2, What were the divisions of Elis? 3. Into 



GRAECIA. 71 

nias derives their name from Epeus, son of Endymion, one 
of the earliest sovereigns of the country. 

3. Elis was generally divided into three parts : — 1. 
Elis Proper or Hollow Elis (rj KolXt} "HXts), the 
northern part, watered by the Peneus, of which the capi- 
tal was also called Elis. 2. Pisatis, the middle portion, 
of which the capital was Pisa. 3. Triphylia, the south- 
ern portion, of which Pylos was the capital, lay between 
the Alpheus and the ITeda. 

4. The country was fertile, watered by the Alpheus and 
its tributaries, and is said to have been the only country in 
Greece which produced flax. 

PLACES IN ELIS. 

5. The first town on the Elean side of the Larissus was 
Buprasium, often mentioned by Homer as one of the 
chief cities of the Epeans. 

6. Cyllene, the haven of Elis, was situated 120 stadia 
from that town, and to the W. of Cape Araxus. It seems 
to have been the usual place of embarkation for those who 
sailed from Peloponnesus to Sicily and Italy. Its remains 
are near JLechena. 

7. Beyond Cyllene was the promontory Chelonatas, 
which forms the extreme point of Peloponnesus towards 
the 1^. W. It is now called Cape Tornese. 

8. The City of Elis was situated on the Peneus, 
120 stadia from the sea. It was, like many other towns of 
Greece, at first composed of several (eight) detached vil- 
lages, which, being united after the Persian war, formed 
one considerable city. 

9. At the foot of Mount Scollis, about 10 or 80 stadia 
to the S. E. of Elis on the road to Olympia, near the con- 
fluence of the Ladon and the Peneus, was the ancient city of 
Pylos, which disputed with two other towns of the same 
name the honor of being the capital of Nestor's dominions. 
These were Pylos of Triphylia, and the Messenian Pylos. 
The Elean city is, for distinction's sake, called Pylos Elidis. 
There has been much controversy, which of these three 
places was the Pylos founded by N'eleus and governed by 
N'estor and his descendants. The town in EHs has little or 

what three parts was Elis divided ? 4. What -was the character of the country ? 
5. Where and what was Buprasium ? 6. Where and what was Cyllene ? 7. What 
promontory was near Cyllene ? 8. Point but the city of Elis ; when and how was 
it formed? 9. Where was Pylos ? How niany other towns of the name? How are 



72 ANCIENT GEOGKAFny. 

no claim to the lionor, and the choice lies between the 
towns in Triphylia and Messenia. The ancients usually 
decided in favor of the Messenian Pylos ; hut most modern 
critics support the claims of the Triphvlian city. 

10. To the S. E. of Elean Pylos, between the Eryman- 
thus and the Ladon, and near the former river was Mount 
Pholoe, now called Maurohoimi, 

11. Pis at is was the middle portion of Elis, or that 
part of the Elean territory, through which flowed the Al- 
pheus after its junction with tlie Erymanthus. Its chief 
city, Pisa, was situated N. of the Alpiieus, at a very short 
distance E. of Olympia, and, in consequence of its proximity 
to the latter place, was frequently identified by the poets 
with it. Pisa was the city of Oenomaus and 'Pelops, and 
formerly disputed with Elis the presidency of the Olympic 
games. In the war waged by the two cities for this honor. 
Pisa was so completely destroyed, that not a trace of it 
was left in later times. 

12. Olympia was the name of a small plain in Elis, in 
which the Olympic games were celebrated. It was sur- 
rounded on the N. and IST. E. by the mountains Cronion 
and Olympus, on the S. by the river Alpheus, and on the 
W. by the river Cladeus. In this plain was the sacred grove 
of Zeus, called "AA-rts, (an old Elean form of oAcros, a grove,) 
situated at the angle formed by the confluence of the rivers 
Alpheus and Cladeus, and 300 stadia distant from the to^^Ti 
of Pisa. The Altis and its immediate neighborhood were 
adorned with numerous temples, statues, and public build- 
ings, to which collectively the general appellation of Olym- 
pia was given ; but there was no to^nl of this name. 

13. The Aitis was surrounded by a wall. It contained 
the following temples : 1. The Olympieum, or temple of 
Zeus Olympius, which was the most celebrated of all the 
buildings at Olymj^ia, and which contained the master- 
piece of Grecian art, the colossal statue of Zeus by Phidias. 
The statue was made of ivory and gold, and the god was 
represented as seated on a throne of cedar-wood, adorned 
with gold, ivory, ebony and precious stones. 2. The He- 
raeum, or temple of Hera, which contained the celebrated 
chest of Cypselus, and was situated iN". of the Olympieum. 
3. The Metroum, or temple of the Mother of the gods. 

they distinguished from each other, and for -what famed ? 10. Point out Mount 
Pholoe. 11. Wliere was Pisatis ; where its chief city, and for what was it famed ? 
12. Point out and describe Olympia. 13. By Avhat was the Aitis surrounded, and 



GKAECIA. 73 

There was a large number of other buildings in the Altis. 
The two chief buildings outside the Altis were the Stadium 
to the E. of Mt. Cronion, in which the gymnastic games 
were celebrated, and the Hippodromus, a little S. E. of the 
Stadium, in which the chariot-races took j^lace. At the 
place which formed the connection between the Stadium 
and Hoppodromus, the Hellanodicae, or judges of the 
Olympic games had their seats. 

14. The Olympic games were celebrated from the ear- 
liest times in Greece, and their establishment was assigned 
to various mythical personages, particularly Hercules. 
There was an interval of four years between each celebra- 
tion of the festival, which interval was called an Olym- 
piad ; but the Olympiads were not employed as a chrono- 
logical era till the victory of Coroebus in the foot-race, 
B. c. 11Q. 

15. Tr iphylia was the southern portion of Elis, lying be- 
tween the Alpheus and the Neda : it is said, by some authors, 
to have derived its name from Tri^^hylus, an Arcadian 
prince ; by others, from the three different tribes by which 
it was peopled. 

16. Scillils (IklXXovs), a town in Triphylia, was situated 
on the river Selinus, 20 stadia S. of Olympia. This place 
is rendered interesting from Xenophon having fixed his 
abode there during his exile. The town itself had been de- 
stroyed by the Eleans, in consequence of its uniting against 
them in the war with Pisa. But the territory being after- 
wards wrested from Elis by the Lacedaemonians, they 
made it over to Xenophon, when that celebrated Athenian 
was banished by his fellow-citizens, for having served in the 
army of the younger Cyrus. He erected here a sanctuary 
to Artemis, which he had vowed during the retreat of the 
Ten Thousand. 

17. Pylos of Triphylia, or Pylus Triphyliacus, 
regarded by Strabo with great probability as the city of 
Nestor, is placed by that geographer at a distance of 30 
stadia from the coast, and near a small river once called 
Amathus and Pamisus, but subsequently Mamaus and Ar- 
cadicus. Notwithstanding its ancient celebrity, this city is 
scarcely mentioned in later times, and Pausanias does not 
appear even to have been aware of its existence. 

what did it contain ? 14. What is said of the Olympic Games? 15. Where was 
Triphylia, and what was the origin of the name ? 16. Where was Soillus, and for 
what was it noted ? 17. Point out and describe Triphylian Pylos. 

4 



74: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 



D. — Messenia. 

1. We learn from Pausanias that Mess e ni a derived its 
appellation from Messene, wife of Polycaon, one of the 
earliest sovereigns of the comitry. 

2. Messenia was bomided E. by Laconia, N. by Elis 
and Arcadia, S. and W. by the Ionian sea. It was sepa- 
rated from Laconia by Mt. Taygetus. The river Neda 
formed the northern frontier between Messenia and Elis. 
The area of Messenia is about 1,162 square miles. 

3. Messenia was, for the most part, a mountainous 
country, and contained only two plains of any extent : in the 
N". the plain of Stenyclerus, and in the S. a still larger 
plain, through which the Pamisus flowed, and which was 
called Macaria, or the Blessed, on account of its great 
fertihty. Hence Messenia is described by Pausanias as the 
most fertile country in Peloponnesus ; and it is praised by 
Euripides on account of its climate, which was neither too 
cold in winter, nor too hot in summer. 

CITIES AND OTHEE PLACES IN MESSENIA. 

4. Cyparissia was a town on the W. coast of Mes- 
senia, S. of the river Cyparissus, and on a promontory and 
bay of the same name, near the Cyparissium Promonto- 
rium and on the Sinus Cyparissius. 

5. Pylos Messeniacus was in the S. W. of the prov- 
ince, at the foot of Mt. Aegaleus on a ]3romontory at the 
]Sr. entrance of the basin, now called the ba^ of JVavarino, 
the largest and safest harbor in all Greece. 

6. Coryphasium was a promontory which enclosed 
the harbor of Pylos on the N"., and had a town of the same 
name upon it. It is doubtless identical with the point of 
land on which Old ISTavarino is situated. 

7. The harbor of Pylos was fronted and protected by 
the small island of Sphacteria, also called Sphagia even 
to this day, which stretched along the coast about If miles, 
leaving only two narrow entrances at each end. 

8. This island is celebrated in Grecian history from the 
defeat and capture of a Lacedaemonian detachment in the 
seventh year of the Peloj)onnesian war, and the harbor pro- 

1. What is tlie derivation of the name Messenia? 2. How was Messenia 
hounded ? Its area how many square miles ? 3. What was the character of the 
conntry ? 4. Point out CjTparissia. 5. Point out and describe Messenian Pylos. 
6. Where and what was CorjqDhasium ? 7. Where and what was the island Sphac- 
teria ? 8. For what is this island celebrated, and what has given the harbor pro- 



GEAECIA. 75 

tected by it has been rendered famous in modern times by 
the victory of the English, French and Russian fleets over 
those of the Turks and Egyptians, 20th October, 1827. 

9. The southernmost promontory of Messenia was A cri- 
tas, ('A/cpetras,) which is now called Cape Gallo. 

10. Stenyclerus was an ancient town in the N". of 
Messenia, and was situated in the Stenyclericus Cam- 
pus or Stenyclerian Plain: both city and plain received 
their name from the hero Stenyclerus. Pausanias relates 
that the Stenyclerian plain was even in his day celebrated 
in the songs of the natives as the scene of Aristomenes' 
achievements. 

11. Messene, situated at the foot of Mt. Ithonie, 
now Vourkano^ was founded by Epaminondas, b. c. 369, 
and completed and fortified within the space of 85 days. 
It was one of the most strongly fortified cities of Greece : 
Pausanias states, that its walls were the strongest he had 
ever seen, being entirely of stone, and well supplied with 
towers and buttresses. The citadel was situated on Mt. 
Ithome, celebrated in history for the long and obsti- 
nate defence which, in their first and in their last revolt, 
the Messenians there made against the Spartans, b. c. V23 
and B. c. 455. Strabo compares the Messenian Acropolis to 
Acrocorinthus, being situated like that citadel on a lofty 
and steep mountain, enclosed by fortified lines, which con- 
nected it with the town. Hence these two were justly 
esteemed the strongest places in the Peloponnesus. 

12. Anion was that district of Messenia which bordered 
on Triphylia and part of Arcadia, being separated from 
these two provinces by the N'eda. Its city of the same 
name is placed by Pausanias near the mouth of the l^eda. 

13. Higher up the Neda stood Ira, a mountain-for- 
tress, celebrated in the history of the Messenian wars as 
the last hold whither Aristomenes retreated, and which he 
so long defended against the enemies of his country. It 
was taken by the Spartans b. c. 668. 

S. — Laconia. 
1. Laconia, as the Spartan Territory was called by 

tected by it celebrity in modern times ? 9. What was Acritas Promontorium ? 
10. Where was Stenycleras ; it gave name to what and was how famed ? 11. 
Point out and give an account of Messene : for what was Mt. Ithome celebrated ? 
12. Where and what was Aulon ? 13. Where was Ira, and famed for what ? 
1. What was the Greek name of this province ? 2. How was Laconia bound- 



T6 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

the Romans, would be more correctly termed Laconica, 
as the Greeks call it AaKwviKTJ, sell. yrj. 

2. Laconia was bounded on the K. by Argolis and Arca- 
dia, on the W. by Messenia, and on the E. and S. by the 
Aegaean Sea. 

3. Laconia was a long valley, running southwards to the 
sea, and was inclosed on three sides by mountains. On the 
N". it was separated by Mt. Parnon from Argolis, and by 
Mt. Sciritis from Arcadia. It was bounded by Mt. Tay- 
getus on the W. and by Mt. Parnon on the E., which are 
two masses of mountams extending from Arcadia to the 
southern extremities of the Peloponnesus. Mt. Taygetus 
terminating at the promontory Taenarum, now Cape Mata- 
pan^ and Mt. Parnon, continued under the names of Thor- 
nax and Zarex, terminating at the promontory Malea, now 
Cape St. A7igelo. 

4. The river Eurotas flows through and drains the 
valley lying between these mountain-masses and falls into 
the Sinus Laconicus. In the upper part of its course the 
valley is narrow, and near Sparta the mountains approach 
so close to each other as to leave little more than room for 
the channel of the river. It is for this reason that we find 
the vale of Sparta called the hollow Lacedaemon, yj kolXyj 
AaKeSat/Awv. Below Sparta the mountains recede, and the 
valley opens out into a plain of considerable extent. 

5. The soil of this plain is poor, but on the slopes of the 
mountains there is land of considerable fertility. 

6. Off the coast shell-fish were caught, which produced 
a purple dye inferior only to the Tyrian. 

7. Laconica or Laconia is well described by Euripides 
as difficult of access to an enemy. On the IN", the country 
could be invaded only by the valleys of the Eurotas and the 
Oenus : the range of Taygetus formed an almost insupera- 
ble barrier on the "W". ; and the want of good harbors on 
the E. coast protected it against invasion by sea on that side. 

PLACES IN LACONIA. ISLANDS OFF THE COAST. ^PEOMON- 

TOEIES. 

8. G y t h i u m or G y t h e u m, now JPalaeopoU, near Mara- 
thonisij an ancient town on the coast of Laconia, founded 
by the Achaeans, lay near the head of the Sinus Laconicus, 

ed? 3. What was the character of the country? 4. What was the character of 
the valley of the Eurotas ? 5. Wliat was the nature of the soil ? 6. What was ob- 
tained on the eea-coast? 7. What were the natural defences of Laconia? 8. 



GEAECIA. 77 

S. W. of the mouth, of the Eurotas. It served as the har- 
bor of Sparta, from which it was distant 240 stadia, and 
was important in a military point of view. 

9. Cranae, the island to which Paris first carried 
Helen from Peloponnesus, is said by some to be an island 
off Gythium, by others to be the island Helena off Attica, 
and by others again to be Cythera. 

10. Helos was a town on the coast of Laconia, in a 
marshy situation, whence its name (€Aos = marsh). The 
town was in rums in the time of Pausanias. It was com- 
monly said that the Spartan slaves, called Helots (EtAwres), 
were originally the Achaean inhabitants of this town, who 
were reduced by the Dorian conquerors to slavery ; but 
this account of the origin of the Helotes seems to have been 
merely an invention, in consequence of the similarity of 
their name to that of the town of Helos. 

11. Cythera, now Gerigo^ was a mountainous island 
off the S. E. point of Laconia, with a town of the same 
name in the interior, the harbor of which was called Scan- 
dea. It was colonised at an early time by the Phoenicians, 
who introduced the worship of Aphrodite into the island, 
for which it was celebrated. The goddess was hence called 
Oytheraea, Cythereis ; and according to some traditions 
it was in the neighborhood of this island that she first rose 
from the foam of the sea. 

12. The possession of Cythera was accounted of great 
importance, as its harbors sheltered the Spartan fleets, and 
afforded protection to all merchant vessels against the 
attacks of pirates. 

13. Boeae was situated at the southern extremity of 
the Boeaticus Sinus near Cape Malea. The town gave 
name to the gulf. 

14. The two most celebrated promontories on the coast 
of Laconia were Taenarum, 0. Matapan, and Malea, 
C. St. Angela. 

15. Taenarum promontorium formed the south- 
erly point of the Peloponnesus : on this promontory 
stood a celebrated temple of Poseidon, possessing an 
inviolable asylum. Here was also a cave, through which 

Where and -what was G-ythium? 9. Where ■was the island Cranae, and how 
famed? 10. Where was Helos ; why was it so called, and what is said of it ? 11. 
Point out Cythera, and give the legend connected -with it. 12. Of what use 
was Cythera to Sparta ? 13. Where was Boeae, and to what did it give name ? 

14. Name the two chief promontories of Laconia, and point them out on the map. 

15. What did Taenarum promontory form, and for what was it noted? 16. How 



78 AKCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

Hercules is said to have dragged Cerberus to the upper 
TTorld ; also a statue of Arion seated on a dolphin, since he 
is said to hare landed at this spot after his miraculous pres- 
ervation by a dolphin. In the time of the Romans there 
"were celebrated marble quarries on the promontory, which 
is now Cape Matapan. Strabo reckons 670 stadia from 
Taenarum to the promontory of Malea, now Cape St. 
Angelo^ including the sinuosities of the coast. 

16. Cape Malea was by the ancients accounted the 
most dangerous point in the circumnavigation of the penin- 
sula : hence the proverbial expression : " After doubling 
CajDe jMalea, forget your country." 

17. Sparta {%rapTri^ Dor. iTrdprci)^ also called Lace- 
daemon (AaKeSai/xcDv), the capital of Laconia and the chief 
city of Peloponnesus, was situated on the right bank of the 
Eurotas, now IH or 'Vasili potamo^ about 20 miles from 
the sea. It stood in a plain which contained in it several 
rising grounds and hills. This plain was shut in on the E. 
by Mt. Menelaium, and on the W. by Mt. Taygetus; 
whence Homer calls the city *' the hollow Lacedaemon." It 
was of a circular form, about 6 miles in circumference, and 
consisted of several distinct quarters, which were originally 
separate villages, and which were never united into one 
regular town. 

IS. The site of Sparta is occupied by the modern vil- 
lages of Magula and Psykhiko ; and the principal modern 
town in the neighborhood is Mistra^ which lies about 2 
miles to the "W". on the slopes of Mt. Taygetus. 

19. During the flourishing times of Greek independ- 
ence, Sparta was never surrounded by walls, since the bra- 
very of its citizens and the difficulty of access to it were sup- 
posed to render such defences needless. It was first forti- 
fied by the tyi'ant Xabis ; but it did not possess regular 
walls till the time of the Romans. 

20. Therapnae or Therapne (0epa7n'at or QepaTrvr]), 
was a town on the left bank of the Eurotas, and about 2 
miles, S. E. of Sparta. It received its name from Therapne, 
daughter of Lelex, and is celebrated in mythology as the 
birthplace of Castor and Pollux, and contained temples of 
these divinities, as well as temples of Menelaus and Helen, 
both of whom were said to be buried here. 

■was Cape Malea regardedby the ancients ? 17. Point out and give some account of 
Sparta. IS. By -n-hat is the site of Sparta now occupied, and what modern town 
is in the neighborhood? 19. WTien was Sparta completely surrounded with 



GI>AECIA. Y9 

21. Amy clae was a very ancient town on tlie Eurotas, in 
a beautiful country, 40 stadia (according to Dodwell. Dr. 
Smith says 20 miles, which, if Dod well's statement is cor- 
rect, must be wrong. Polybius makes it only 20 stadia) 
S. E. of Sparta. It is said to have been founded by the an- 
cient Lacedaemonian King Amyclas, father of Hyacinthus, 
and to have been the abode of Tyndareus, and of Castor 
and Pollux, who are hence called Amyclaei Fratres, 
Its most celebrated structure was the temple of the Amy- 
claean Apollo. 

22. IST. of Sparta was Sellasia, situated on the river 
Oenus, and commanding one of the principal passes leading 
to Sparta. Here the celebrated battle was fought between 
Cleomenes III. and Antigonus Doson b. c. 221, in which 
the former was defeated. 

P.— Argolis. 

1. According to Strabo, Argos (ro^Apyo?, -eos) signified a 
plain in the language of the Macedonians and Thessalians. 
The district Argos in Peloponnesus was called Argolis by 
Herodotus, but more frequently by other Greek writers either 
Argos, Argia, or Argolice. Thus Argos is the name 
that was originally appHed to the country or province ; but 
under the Romans Argolis became the usual name of the 
country, while the word Argos or Argi was confined to 
the town. 

2. Argolis under the Romans signified the country 
bounded on the 1^. by Sicyonia and Corinthia, on the W. 
by Arcadia, on the S. by Laconia, and included towards 
the E. the whole Acte or peninsula between the Saronic 
and Argolic gulfs ; but during the time of the Grecian in- 
dependence, Argohs or Argos was only the country lying 
round the Argolic gulf, bounded on the W. by the Arca- 
dian mountains, and separated on the N^. by a range of 
mountains from Corinthia, Cleonae, and Phhus. 

3. Argolis, as understood by the Romans, was for the 
most part a mountainous and unproductive country : the 
only extensive plain adapted for agriculture was in the 
neighborhood of the city of Argos. Its rivers were in- 
significant, and mostly dry in summer : the most important 
was the Inachus. 

walls? 20. Where was Therapne, and how famed? 21. Where was Amyclae, 
and how famed ? 22. Where was Sellasia, and how famed ? 

1. From what was the name Argolis derived ? 2. How was Argolis bounded ? 



80 ANCIENT GEOaKAPHT. 

PLACES IN ARGOLIS. ISLANDS OFF THE COAST. 

4. Lerna or Lerne {Aipyrf), was a distrkt in Argolis, 
not far from Argos. In this district, near the N". 
"W. angle of the Sinus Argolicus, was a marsh and 
small river of the same name. This marsh or lake was 
celebrated as the place where Hercules killed the Lernean 
hydra. 

5. Argos, now Argo, the capital of Argolis, and, next 
to Sparta, the most important town in Peloponnesus, was sit- 
uated in a level plain a little to the W. of the Inachus. It 
had an ancient Pelasgic citadel, called Larissa, and another 
built subsequently on another height. It possessed nu- 
merous temples, and was particularly celebrated for the 
worship of Hera, whose great temple, Heraeum, lay be- 
tween Argos and Mycenae. The remains of the Cyclopian 
walls of Argos are still to be seen. The city is said to have 
been founded by Inachus, or his son, Phoroneus, or grand- 
.son, Argus. 

6. E'auplia, situated on the Saronic gulf, was the port 
of Argos. Although the only good harbor that Argolis 
possessed, it was never a place of importance in antiquity, 
and was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. It is now called 
WaiipUa, or JVapoU di Romania^ and is one of the most im- 
portant cities in Greece. 

7. Mycenae (Mi;K75vat), about 6 miles IsT. E. of Argos, 
is situated on a hill at the head of a narrow valley. It is 
said to have been founded by Perseus, and was subse- 
quently the favorite residence of the Pelopidae. During 
the reign of Agamemnon it was regarded as the first city in 
all Greece ; but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by the 
Dorians, it ceased to be a place of importance. It still, 
however, continued an independent town until b. c. 468, 
when it was attacked by the people of Argos. 

8. The massive walls of Mycenae resisted all the attacks 
of the Argives ; but the inhabitants were at length com- 
pelled by famine to abandon their town. They effected 
their escape without a surrender, and took refuge, some at 
Cleonae, some in Achaia, others in Macedonia. Mycenae 
was now destroyed by the Argives and was never rebuilt. 

9. There are still, however, numerous remains of the an- 

3. What was the character of the country 1 4. Where was Lerna, and how 
famed ? 5. Point out and give some account of Argos. 6. What and where was 
the port of Argos ? 7. Point out and give some account of Mycenae : by whom i8 
it said to have been founded ? 8. What was the fate of the city and its inhabit- 



GRAECIA. 81 

cient city, which, on account of their antiquity and grandeur, 
are some of the most interesting in all Greece. Of these 
the most remarkable are the subterranean vault, commonly 
called the "Treasury of Athens," but which was more 
probably a sepulchre, and the Gate of Lions, so called from 
two lions sculptured over the gate. The ruins are close to 
the village of Krabata. 

10. Tiryns, S.E. of Argos and one of the most ancient 
towns in all Greece, is said to have been founded by Proe- 
tus, the brother of Acrisius, who built the massive walls of 
the city with the help of the Cyclopes. Proetus was suc- 
ceeded by Perseus; and it was here that Hercules was 
brought up. Hence we find his mother Alcmena called 
Tirynthia, and the hero himself Tirynthius. 

11. The town was destroyed by the Argives, and most 
of the inhabitants were removed to Argos. Tiryns was 
built upon a hill of small extent, rising abruptly from the 
dead level of the surrounding country. The remains of the 
city are some of the most interesting in all Greece, and are, 
with those of Mycenae, the most ancient specimen of what 
is called Cyclopian architecture. They consist of masses 
of enormous stones, rudely piled in tiers above one an- 
other. 

12. Troezen, more rarely Troezene, was the capital 
of Troezenia, a district in the S. E. of Argolis on the 
Saronic gulf, and opposite the island of Aegina. The town 
was situated at some little distance from the coast, on which 
it possessed a harbor called Pogon (Ilwycov, the beard), oppo- 
site the island of Oalauria. Troezen was a very ancient 
city, and is said to have been originally called Poseidonia, 
on account of its worship of Poseidon. 

13. It received its later name from Troezen, one of the 
sons of Pelops, and it is celebrated in mythology as the 
place where Pittheus, the maternal grandfather of Theseus, 
lived, and where Theseus himself was born. It was a city 
of some importance, as it sent five ships of war to Salamis, 
and 1,000 heavy-armed men to Plataeae. "When the Per-^ 
sians entered Attica, the Troezenians distinguished them- 
selves by the kindness with which they received the Athe- 
nians, who were obhged to abandon their city. 

ants ? 9. What remains of the ancient city still exist ? 10. Where, what and by 
whom founded was Tiryns : what legend is connected with it ? 11. By whom 
was the town destroyed, and what interesting remains of it are still to be seen ? 
12. Point out and give some account of Troezene. 13. From whom did it receive 
its later nam© : how is it noted in mythology, and for what \s it distinguished in 

4* 



82 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

14. The island ofCalauria possessed a celebrated tem- 
ple of Poseidon, wMch was regarded as an inviolable asylum. 
Hither Demosthenes fled to escape Antipater, and here he 
took poison, b. c. 322. 

15. A e gin a, now called Eghina or Enghia^ is a rocky- 
island in the middle of the Sinus Saronicus, about 200 stadia 
in circumference. It was originally called Oenone or 
Oenopia, and is said to have obtained the name of Aegina 
from Aegina, the daughter of the river god Asopus, who 
was carried to the island by Zeus, and there bore him a son 
Aeacus. As the island had then no inhabitants, Zeus 
changed the ants into men {Myrmidones)^ over whom 
Aeacus ruled. 

16. It was first colonized by Achaeans, and afterwards 
by Dorians from Epidaurus. It early became a place of 
great commercial importance, and its silver coinage was 
the standard in most of the Dorian states. In the 6th 
century b. c, Aegina became mdependent, and, for a cen- 
tury before the Persian war, was a prosperous and power- 
ful state. The Aeginetans fought with 30 ships against the 
fleet of Xerxes, at Salamis, b. c. 480, and, are allowed to 
have distinguished themselves above all the other Greeks 
by their bravery. After this time its power declined. In 
B. c. 429 the Athenians took possession of the island and 
expelled its inhabitants ; and though a portion of them was 
restored by Lysander in b. c. 404, the island never recovered 
its former prosperity. 

17. In the N. "W. of the island there was a city of the 
same name, which contained the Aeaceum or temple of 
Aeacus. 

18. On a hUl in the N. E. of the island was the cele- 
brated temple of Zeus Panhellenius, said to have been built 
by Aeacus, the ruins of which are still extant. The 
sculptures which occupied the tympana of the pediment of 
this temple were discovered in 1811, and are now preserved 
at Munich. In the half century preceding the Persian war, 
and for a few years afterwards, Aegina was the chief seat 
of Greek art : the most eminent artists of the Aeginetan 
school were Gallon, Anaxagoras, Glaucias, Simon, and 
Onatas. 

history? 14. For what is the island of Calauria remarkahle? 15. Where is 
Aegina, and for what is it famed in mythology ? 16. How was it famed in the his- 
torical period of Greece ? 17. What and where was its capital city, and for what 
remarkable ? 18. What was in the N. E. of the island, and what remains of 
Aeginetan art are extant ? 



GEAECIA. 83 



G. — Arcadia. 



1. Arcadia, lying in the middle of Peloponnesus, was 
bounded E. by ArgoHs, N. by Achaia, W. by Elis, and S. 
by Messenia and Laconica or Laconia. 

2. -N'ext to Laconia it was the largest country in the 
Peloponnesus: its greatest length was about 50 miles, its 
breadth from 35 to 41 miles. It was surrounded on all 
sides by mountains, which likewise traversed it in every 
direction, and it may be regarded as the Switzerland of 
Greece. . 

MOUNTAmS, CITIES, ETC., ET ARCADIA. 

3. Its principal mountains were Cyllene and Ery- 
manthus in the !N"., Artemisius in the E., and Par- 
thenius, Maenalus and Lycaeus in the S. and S. W. 

4. Mount Cyllene, the loftiest and most celebrated 
mountain of Arcadia, rises between Stymphalus and 
Pheneus on the borders of Achaia. According to the 
poets it was the birthj^lace of Mercury, who was hence 
caUed Cyllenius, and to whom a temple was dedicated on 
the summit. It is now called Zyria. 

5. The N", and E. parts of the country were barren and 
unproductive : the W. and S. were more fertile, with nu- 
merous valleys where corn was grown. The Arcadians, 
said to be descended from the eponymous hero Areas, re- 
garded themselves as the most ancient people in Greece : 
the Greek writers call them indigenous (avrox^oves), and Pe- 
lasgians. 

6. In consequence of the physical peculiarity of the 
country, they were chiefly employed in hunting and the 
tending of cattle, whence their worship of Pan, who was 
especially the god of Arcadia, and of Artemis. They were 
a people simple ia their habits and moderate in their 
desires : they were passionately fond of music, and culti- 
vated it with great success (Yirg. Eel. x. 32), which circum- 
stance was supposed to soften the natural roughness of 
their character. Like the Swiss, the Arcadians frequently 
served as mercenaries, and in the Peloponnesian war, they 



1. How was Arcadia bounded ? 2. "WTiat was its extent, and what its general 
features ? 3. What and where were its principal mountains ? 4. Where was Mount 
Cyllene, and how famed? What is its modern name ? 5. What was the character 
of the country, as what did its inhabitants regard themselves, and how were they 
called by Greek writers ? 6. What was the chief employment of the inhabitants ; 



84 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

were found in the armies of both the Lacedaemonians and 
Athenians. 

7. Mantinea, the ruins of which are now called Pcdae- 
opoli^ was one of the most ancient and important towns in 
Arcadia, situated on the small river Ophis, near the centre 
of the E. frontier of the country. It is celebrated in his- 
tory for the great battle fought under its walls between 
the Spartans and Thebans, in which Epaminondas fell, b. c. 
S62. 

8. In the N". E. of Arcadia was the town of Stympha- 
lus, the district of which was one of military importance, 
since it commanded one of the chief roads from Arcadia to 
Argolis. The town was situated on a mountain of the same 
name, and on the N. side of the lake Stymphalis, now 
Zaraka^ on which dwelt, according to tradition, the cele- 
brated birds called Stymphalides, destroyed by Hercules. 

9. In the IST. W., on the frontiers of Achaia and Elis, 
was Ery man thus, now JKallifoni^ a lofty mountain cele- 
brated in mythology as the haunt of the savage Erymanthian 
boar destroyed by Hercules. 

10. Megalopolis, now Simano or /Smorm^, the most 
recent, but the most imjDortant of the cities of Arcadia, was 
founded by the advice of Epaminondas after the battle of 
Leuctra, b. c. 371, as a barrier against the Sj^artans, and 
was formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages. It was 
situated in the district Maenalia, near the frontier of Mes- 
senia, on the river Hehsson, which flowed through the city, 
dividing it into two nearly equal parts. It was the birth- 
place of Philopoemen and of the historian Polybius. 

11 . To the ISJ". W. of Megalopolis was L y c a e u s or L yc e u s , 
a lofty mountain from the summit of which a great part of 
the country could be seen. It was one of the chief seats 
of the worship of Zeus, who was hence surnamed Lycaeus, 
apd had a temple here. Here also was celebrated the festi- 
val or games of the Lycaea. Pan was also called Lycaeus, 
because he was born and had a sanctuary in this mountain. 

12. Phigalia, at a later time called Phialia, now 
JPaolitza, was a town in the extreme S. W., on the frontiers 
of Messenia and Elis, and upon the river Lymax. It owes 
its celebrity in modern times to the remains of a splendid 

Tvliat their character and habits, and -what their practice in -war? 7. Where was 
Mantinea, and for what is it celebrated in history ? 8. Where was Stymphalus, and 
for what famed? 9. Where was Mount Erymanthus, and how famed in mythol- 
ogy ? 10. Where was Megalopolis ; why founded, and celebrated as the birth- 
place of whom ? 11. Where was Mons Lycaeus, and how famed? 12. Where was 



GSAECIA. 85 

temple of Apollo Epicurius in its territory, and to tlie 
beautiful Phigalian Marbles, representing the combat of 
the Ceutaurs and the Lapithae. They are now in the Brit- 
ish Museum. 

13. K. E. of Megalopohs was Tegea, one of the most 
ancient and important cities of Arcadia. The Tegeatae sent 
3,000 men to the battle of Plataeae, in which they were 
distinguished for their bravery. 

14. Mount Maenalus extended from Megalopolis to 
Tegea, and was celebrated as the favorite haunt of the god 
Pan. The mountain was so celebrated, that the Roman 
poets frequently use the adjectives Maenaliusand Maenalis 
as equivalent to Arcadian. 



IS.— The Grecian Islmmds. 

1 . The Cyclades are a group of islands in the Aegaean 
sea, and were so called because they lay in a circle {Iv 
KVKkia) around Delos, the most important of them. The 
most important of them were Delos, Ceos, Seriphos, 
R-henia, Siphnos, Cimolos, l^axos, Paros, Sy- 
ros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros. 

2. According to a legend, founded perhaps upon some 
tradition of its late volcanic origin, Delos was called out 
of the deep by the trident of Poseidon, but was a floating 
island until Zeus fastened it by adamantine chains to the 
bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure resting-place 
to Leto, for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. 

3. The city of Delos stood on theW. side of the 
island, at the foot of Mount Cynthus, from which 
Apollo received the surname of Cynthius, Artemis that of 
Cynthia. 

4. The modern names of Delos are Delo^ Deli^ Dili^ or 
Bdili. 

5. Ceos, between the Attic promontory Sunium and the 
island Cythnus, is chiefly known as the birthplace of Simo- 
nides. 

6. Cythnos, now Thermia^ was celebrated for its 



PMgalia, chiefly famed for what ? 13. Where was Tegea, and how famed in his- 
tory ? 14. Where was Mount Maenalus, and for what noted ? 

1. Where were the Cyclades ; why so called, and which the most important ? 
2. What is the legend about Delos? 3. What mountain in Delos, and what 
epithets were derived from this ? 4. What are the modern names of Delos ? 5. 
Where was Ceos, and how famed? 6. For what was Cythnos celebrated? 7. 



86 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

cheese and also for its warm springs, whence its modern 
name. 

7. SerTphns, now Ser2)ho^ was a small rocky island 
about 12 miles in circumference. It is celebrated in my- 
thology as the island where Danae and Perseus landed 
after they had been exposed by Acrisius, where Perseus 
was brought up, and where he afterwards turned the inhab- 
itants into stone with the Gorgon's head. 

8. IMelos, now J[/«7o, is the most westerly of the group, 
whence it was called Zephyria by Aristotle. It is of vol- 
canic origin : it contains mines of sulphur and alum. Its 
soil is very fertile, and it produced m antiquity, as it does 
at present, abundance of corn, oil, wme, &q. 

9. Siphnos, now S^p/mo, about 40 miles in circum- 
ference, lies S. E. of Seriphus. In consequence of their 
gold and silver mines, of which the remams are still visible, 
the Siphnians attained great prosperity, and were regarded 
in the time of Herodotus as the wealthiest of the islanders. 

10. Cimolus, or Cimolis, now Cimoli or Argeoi- 
tiere., is between Siphnos and Mclos, and was celebrated for 
its fine white earth, used by fullers for cleaning cloths. 

11. Olearus or O liar us, now Antiparos^ is W. of 
Pares, and celebrated in modern times tor its stalactite 
grotto. 

12. Par OS, now Paro^ was S. of Delos and '^, E. of 
Siphnos. The most celebrated production of this island 
was its marble, which was extensively used by the ancient 
sculptors. It was chiefly obtained from a mountain called 
Marpessa. Paros was the birthplace of the poet Archi- 
locus. 

13. Naxos, now iV^acce^, the largest of the group, is 
situated nearly halfway between the coasts of Greece and 
Asia Minor. It was especially celebrated for its wine, and 
hence plays a prominent part in the legends about Diony- 
sus, who was worshipped here. Here the god is said to 
have found Ariadne after she had been deserted by The- 
seus. The marble of the island was considered equal to 
the Parian. 

14. Syros, or Syr us, now /Syra, is between Rhenea 

Foi' what is Soriphns celebrated? 8. Wl\ero was Melos, and what was its char- 
acter? 9. Wliero is Siphnos, and for what were its inhabitants noted? 10. 
Where was Cimolos or Cimolis, (now Cimoli or Arpontiere,) and noted for what? 
11. Where is Olearos, and for what celebrated ? ^12. Where is Paros, and for 
■what celebrated ? It was the birthplace of whom ? 13. Where is Nasos, and for 
what celebrated ? 14. Where was Syros, and noted as the birthplace of whom ? 



GRAECIA. 87 

and Cytlmos, and is noted as the birthplace of the philoso- 
pher PhcrecydcH. 

15. Myconos, now Mycono^ is S. E. of Tcnos and E. 
of Delos. It is celebrated in mythology as one of the places 
where the giants were defeated by Hercules. The island was 
poor and unproductive, and its inhabitants were rapacious. 
It became proverbial for the largo number of bald persons 
among its inhabitants. 

IQ, Tenos, now Two, S. E. of Andros and N". of De- 
los, was originally called 1 lydrussa, because it was well 
watered, and Ophiussa, because it abounded in snakes. 

17. Andros, now Andro^ the most northerly, and one 
of the largest of the Cyclades, lies S. E. of Euboea. It was 
celebrated for its wine, and contained a famous temple of 
Dionysos, to whom the whole island was regarded as 
sacred. 

18. G yarns, now Chiura^ or Jura, is S. W. of An- 
dros : it was poor and unproductive, and inhabited only 
by fishermen. Under the Koman emperors it was a place 
of banishment. 

19. The Sp Grades (STropaSe?, sell, i/^croi, from o-Trctpto, to 
scatter) were a grou]) of scattered islands in the Aegaean 
sea off the island of Crete and the W. coast of Asia Minor, 
so called in opposition to the Cyclades, which lay, as we 
have seen, in a circle around Delos. The division, how- 
ever, between these two groups of islands was not well de- 
fined : and we find some of the islands at one time described 
as belonging to the Sporades, and at another as belonging 
to the Cyclades. 

20. Til or a, now jSantoria, iha chief island of the group, 
is distant from Crete 700 stadia, and 25 miles S, of the 
island of los. It is 3 G miles in circumference, and in iiguro 
exactly like a horse-shoe. It is clearly of volcanic origin. 
Therasia, a small island to the W., and still bearing the 
same name, was torn away from Thera by some volcanic 
convulsion. Tliera is said to have been originally inhabited 
by Phoenicians, but was afterwards colonized by Lacedae- 
monians and Minyans of Lenmos under tlie guidance of tho 
Spartan Theras, who gave his name to the island. In b. c. 



15. Wlicro was Myconow, and for -wliat is it colobnitod in mytliolop:y, and what 
■was Uio c-haraotcr of tho inhind and of itH InhabilantB? 10. Whoro wan Tonoa. 
and Avhat other names had it? 17. Wliero was Andros, and for what was it 
noted ? 18. Where was Gyarus, what was its character, and for what did tho Ro- 
mans use it ? 10. Where were tho Sporudes, and why eo called ? 20. Where wao 



88 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

631 Battus conducted a colony from Thera to Africa, where 
he founded the celebrated city of Cyrene. 

21. Anaphe, now Anaphi or JSfanfio^ is a small island 
E. of Thera, with a temple of Apollo Aegletes, who was 
hence called Anapheus. 

22. ^N'orth of Thera is los, now called Nio^ where, ac- 
cording to some accounts. Homer was interred. It was 
also said that the poet's mother was a native of this island. 

^3. Carpathus, now Scarpanto^ is between Crete and 
Rhodes, in the sea named after it. 

24. Creta, ordinarily called Crete, now Gandia^ one of 
the largest islands in the Mediterranean sea, is nearly equi- 
distant from Europe, Asia, and Africa, but always reckoned 
as part of Europe. Its name is variously accounted for by 
different authors, of whom the generality, however, derive 
it from Cres, a son of Jupiter and the nymph Idaea. 

25. The length of the island from E. to W. is about 160 
miles : its breadth is very unequal, being in the widest part 
about 35 miles, and in the narrowest only 6. 

26. The principal capes or promontories of Creta were ; 
1. In the extreme E., Salmonium promontorium, or 
Salmona, now Cape Salmon or Sahnone ; and 2. In the 
W. Criu-metopon, (Kptoi) [xiTWTrov, the ram's head or front,) 
the extreme point of which is called Corycum promon- 
torium, (KwpVKOS OLKpa.) 

27. A range of mountains runs through the whole length 
of the island from E. to W., sending forth spurs N. and S. : 
in the centre of the island rises Mt. Ida far above all 
others ; its summit is said to be 7,674 feet above the level of 
the sea. Its modern name is JPsilorati. 

28. It has been remarked by several ancient writers, that 
Homer in one passage (II. B. 649) ascribes to Crete one 
hundred cities, and in another only ninety, (Odyss. T. 174 ;) 
a variation that has been accounted for on the supposition 
that ten of the Cretan cities were founded posterior to the 
siege of Troy. As there are serious objections to this expla- 
nation, we prefer that suggested by other authors, viz., that 
during the siege of Troy the ten deficient cities had been 
destroyed by the enemies of Idomeneus. (Strab. X., p. 
479 sq.) 

Thera, and what is its character? 21. Where -was Anaphe, and for what was it 
noted? 22. Where was los, and how famed? 23. Where was Carpathus, and to 
what did it give name ? 24. Where is Creta, and whence is its name derived? 
25. What is the size of the Island ? 26. Name and point out the two principal 
capes or promontories. 27. What famous mountain-range in Crete ? 28. What 



GEAECIA. »y 

29. Cydonia, more rarely Cydonis, now lOiania or 
Canea^ one of the chief cities of Crete, the rival and oppo- 
nent of Cnossus and Gortyna, was situated on the N. W. 
coast, and derived its name from the Cydones, a Cretan 
race, placed by Homer on the W. part of the island. At 
a later time a colony of Zacynthians settled in Cydonia : 
they were driven out by the Samians about b. c. 524. Cy- 
donia was the place from which quinces (Cydonia mala) 
were first brought to Italy. 

30. Cnosus or Gnosus, subsequently Cnossus or 
Gnossus, a very ancient city and the capital of King 
Minos, was situated in a fertile country on the river Cae- 
ratus (which was originally the name of the town) at a 
short distance from the N. coast. Cnossus is frequently 
mentioned by the poets, in consequence of its connection 
with Minos, Ariadne, the Minotaur, and the Labyrinth. 

31. In the E. of the island was Mount Dicte, on 
which, according to some accounts, Zeus was born and 
brought up. 

32. Gortyn or Gortyna, 6 miles from the foot of Mt. 
Ida, one of the most ancient cities, and the second city in 
Crete, was inferior only to Cnossus ; and on the decline of 
the latter place under the Komans, it became the metropo- 
lis of the island. 

33. Phoenix, a harbor on the S. of the island, was 
visited by St. Paul during his voyage to Rome, (Acts xxvii. 
12.) 

34. The Cretans were celebrated as archers, and fre- 
quently served as mercenaries in the armies of other nations. 

35. The Cretans bore a very bad character among the 
ancients: the historian Polybius accuses them of numerous 
vices, and the apostle Paul, quoting the Cretan poet Epi- 
menides, describes them as " alway liars, evil beasts, slow 
bellies." (Titus I. 12.) 

does Homer ascribe to Crete, and how is the discrepancy accounted for ? 29. 
Where was Cydonia, and how famed? 30. Where was Cnossus, and how famed? 
31. Where was Mount Dicte, and celebrated for what? 32. Where was Gortyna, 
and how noted? 33. Where was Phoenix, and for what noted? 34. For what 
■ were the Cretans celebrated ? 35, What was the character of the Cretans ? 



90 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

SECTIOl^ n. 
ITALIA. 

1. Most of the ancients, according to their usual cus- 
tom, derived the name Italia from an ancient King Italus ; 
but others, still more absurdly, connected it with the old 
ItaUan word Italus, (m Oscan, vitlu or vitelu,) an ox, be- 
cause the country was rich in oxen. But there can be no 
doubt that Italia, or Yitalia, as it was also called, was the 
land of the Itiili, Yitali, Yitelli, or Yituli, an ancient race, 
who are better known under the name of Siciili. 

2. Besides Italia, the country was called by various 
names, especially by the poets. These were Hesperia, 
a name which the Greeks gave to it, because it lay to the 
W. of Greece, or Hesperia Magna, to distinguish it from 
Spain: and Saturnia, because Saturn was said to have 
once reigned in Latium. The names of separate parts 
of Italy were also applied by the poets to the whole 
country. Thus it was called Oenotria, originally the 
land of the Oenotri, in the country afterwards called Brut- 
tium and Lucania: Ausonia, or Opica, or Opicia, 
originally the land of the Ausones or Ausonii, Opici, or Osci, 
on the W. coast, in the country afterwards called Campa- 
nia. Tyrrhenia, properly the land of the Tyrrheni, also 
on the W. coast, IN^. of Ausonia or Opica, and more espe- 
cially in the country afterwards called Etruria: lapygia, 
properly the land of the lapyges on the E. coast, in the 
country afterwards called Calabria : and Ombric a, the land 
of the Umbri on the E. coast, alongside of Etruria. 

3. The name ItaUa was originally used to indicate a 
very limited extent of comitry. According to the Greeks 
it was originally only the southernmost part of what was 
afterwards called Bruttium, and was bounded on the N. by 
a line drawn from the Sinus Terinaeus or Lameticus to the 
Sinus Scylacius or Scylleticus. They afterwards extended 
the name to signify the whole country S. of Posidouia or 
Paestum on the'W. and Tarentum on the E. After the 

L "What is the origin of the name Italia ? 2. WTiat other names had Italy ; vrhat 
was their origin and their particular application? 3. What was the earliest applica- 



ITALIA. 91 

Romans had conquered Tarentum and the S. part of the 
peninsula, about b. c. 272, the name Italia had a still further 
extension given to it. It then signified the whole country 
subject to the Romans, from the Sicilian straits as far N. 
as the Arnus and the Rubico. The country N. of these 
rivers continued to be called Gallia Cisalpina and Li- 
guria down to the end of the republic. Augustus was 
the first who extended the name of Italia so as to compre- 
hend the whole of the basin of the Po and the S. part of 
the Alps, from the maritime Alps to Pola in Istria, both 
inclusive. 

4. Italia was bounded on the W. by the Mare Ligusti- 
cura and Tyrrhenum, Tuscum or Inferum : on the S. by the 
Mare Siculum or Ausonium : on the E. by the Mare Adri- 
aticum or Superum : and on the N. by the Alps, which 
sweep round it in a semicircle, the river Varus ( Far, Varo) 
separating it on the N. W. from Transalpine Gaul, and the 
river Arsia (Arsa) on the N". E. from lUyricura. 

5. At the time of Augustus the following were the chief 
divisions of Italy : — I. Upper Italy, which extended from 
the Alps to the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the 
E. It comprehended : 1. Liguria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 
3. Venetia, including Carnia. 4. Istria. II. Central 
Italy, sometimes called Italia Propria (a term not used 
by the ancients) to distinguish it from Gallia Cisalpina or 
Upper Italy, and Magna Graecia or Lower Italy, extended 
from the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E. to 
the rivers Silarus on the W. and Frento on the E. It com- 
prehended: 1. Etruria. 2. Umbria. 3. Picenum. 4. 
Samnium, including the country of the jSabmi, Vestini^ 
Marrucini, Marsi^ Peligni^ &c. 5. Latin m. G. Cam- 
pania. III. Lower Italy, or Magna Graecia, included 
the remaining part of the peninsula, S. of the rivers Silarus 
and Frento. It comprehended: I.Apulia, including Ca- 
labria. 2. Lucania. 3. Bruttium. 

6. The most ancient inhabitants of Italy were Pelas- 
gians or Oenotrians, a branch of the same great race 
who originally inhabited Greece and the coasts of Asia 
Minor : they were also called Aborigines and Siculi, who 
were the same as the Vitali or Itali. At the time when 
Roman history begins, Italy was inhabited by the following 
races: — 1. The Etruscans. 2. TheUmbrians. 3. The 

tion of the name Italia, and to what was it gradually extended ? 4. How was Italia 
bounded? 5. Into what divisions waa Italia formed in tho time of Augustus ? 6. 



92 AITCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

Sacrani, Casci, or Prisci, Oscan tribes, who had been 
driven out of the mountains by the Sabmes, had overcome 
the Pelasgian tribes of the Sicuh, Aborigines, or Latins, 
and, uniting with these conquered people, had formed the 
people called Prisci Latini. 4. The Opici or O scans, 
who were also called Ausones or Aurunci, and to 
whom the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticuli, and Ae qui also 
belonged. 5. The various Sabellian or Sabine tribes, 
from whom sprung the warlike race of the Samnites. 
6. In the S. E. the Daunians or Apulians, &c. 

1. The Oscan language was closely connected with 
the other ancient Italian dialects, out of which the Latin 
language was formed, and it continued to be spoken 
by the people of Campania long after the Oscans had dis- 
appeared as a separate people. A knowledge of it was 
preserved till a late period at Rome by the Tabulae 
Atellanae, which were a species of farce or comedy written 
in Oscan. 

8. To the districts in the S. of Italy, which were in- 
habited by the Greeks was given the name of Mag7ia 
Graecia or G. Major, 

MOUNTAINS. 

9. Alpes, the Alps^ which name is probably derived 
from the Celtic Alb or Alp, ' • a height," form the boundary 
of Northern Italy from the Ligusticum Mare to the Mare 
Hadriaticum. In the time of the emperors the different 
parts of the Alps were distinguished by the foUowiug 
names, most of which are still retained: — 1. Alpes Maeiti- 
MAE, the Marithne or Ligurian Alps^ from Genua ( Genoa) 
where the Apennines begin, run W. as far as the river 
Yarns ( Yar) and M. Cema, {la Caillole^) and then N". to M. 
Vesulus, (Monte Viso^) one of the highest points of the 
Alp's. 2. Alpes Cottiae or Cottianae, the Cottonian 
Alps, (so called from a King Cottius in the time of Augus- 
tus,) from Monte Yiso to Mont Cenis. 3. Alpes Geaiae, 
(probably a Celtic name,) the Graia7i Alps^ from Mont 
Cenis to the Little Samt Bernard, inclusive. The Little 
St. Bernard is probably the pass by which Hannibal crossed 
the Alps. 4. Alpes Penninae, the Pe7%nine Alps, from the 
Great St. Bernard to the Simplon inclusive, the highest 

Name the principal tribes by whicli Italy was inhabited in the earlier times. 7. 
What is said of the Oscan language ? 8. Magna Graecia why so called? 9. The 
Alps why so called ? mention the several divisions, and the modern names of the 



ITALIA. 93 

portion of the chain, including Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, 
and Mont Cervin. The name Penninae is probably derived 
from the Celtic Pen, "a height." 5. Alpes Lepontioeum 
or Lepontiae, the Lepontian or Helvetian Alps, from the 
Simplon to the St. Gothard. 6. Alpes Rhaeticae, the 
Rhaetian Alps^ from the St. Gothard to the Orteler by the 
pass of the Stelvio. 7. Alpes TRiDENTi]srAE, the mountains 
of Southern Tyrol. 8. Alpes Nokicae, the Noric Alps^ 
1^. E. of the Tridentine Alps, comprising the mountains in 
the neighborhood of Salzburg. 9. Alpes Carnicae, the 
Carnic Alp)s^ E. of the Tridentine, and S. of the Noric, to 
Mount Terglu. 10. Alpes Juliae, the Julian Alps, from 
Mount Terglu to the commencement of the Illyrian or Dal- 
matian Mountains, which are known by the name of the 
Alpes Dalmaticae, further north by the name of the Alpes 
Pannonicae. The Alpes Juliae were so called because 
Julius Caesar and Augustus constructed a road across 
them : they are also called Alpes Yenetae. 

10, Apenninus Mons, noAy called the Apennines, is a 
chain of mountains which runs through Italy from N". to 
S., and forms the backbone of the peninsula. It is a con- 
tinuation of the Alpes Maritimae, begins near Genua, and 
ends at the Sicilian Sea, and throughout its whole course 
sends out numerous branches in all directions. It rises to 
its greatest height in the country of the Sabines, where one 
of its points (now Monte Corno) is 9,521 feet above the sea. 

PEOMONTORIES. 

11. Eighteen promontories on the coast of Italia are to 
be particularly noted: — I. Three on the Upper .or IsT. E. 
coast: 1. Polaticum Prom., now C. Promontoire, 
being the most southerly point of Istria. 2. Cumerium 
Pr., Monte Comero, 3. Garganum Pr., Monte Gar- 
gano, in Apulia, famous for its oak forests. II. Seven on 
the S. E. coast: 1. lapygiumPr. or Salentinum Pr., 
now Capo di Leuca. 2. Crimisa Pr., now Capo clelP 
Alice. 3. Lacinium Pr., now Capo delle Colon7ie,OY C. 
JSTao. 4. lapy^gum tria Pr., very near each other: now 
Capo Castella, C. JRizzuto, G. della Nave. 5. Cocin- 
thum Pr., G. Stilo. 6. Zephyrium Pr., now Capo di 
Bi^zzano. 7. Herciilis Pr., now Capo jSpartivetito, the 

principal summits. 10. What was the principal range of mountains in Italy, and 
■what its direction? 11. Point out and name the principal promontories of Italia, 



94: ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

most southerly point of Italy in Bruttium. III. Eight on 
the lower orS.W. coast: 1. Leucopetra, or Petra Pr., 
now Ca2?o delP A^^mi. 2. Caenys Pr., now JPunta del 
Pezzo^ also Coda di Voipe, according to some, Capo di 
Cavallo^ in Bruttium, opposite Sicily. 3. Palinurum 
Pr., now C. Palinuro^ on the W. coast of Lucania. It is 
said to have derived its name from Palmurus, the son of 
lasus, and pilot of the ship of Aeneas, who fell into the sea, 
and was murdered on the coast by the natives, 4. Posi- 
dium Pr., now Punta delta Licosa^ in Lucania, opposite 
the island Leucosia, the S. point of the gulf of Paestum. 
5. Minervae Promontorium, now Punta delta Carri' 
loanelta or delta Minerva^ a rocky promontory in Campa- 
nia, running out a long way into the sea, 6 miles S. 
E. of Surrentum, on whose summit was a temple of 
Minerva, which was said to have been built by Ulysses, and 
which was still standing in the time of Seneca. Here the 
Sirens are reported to have dwelt. 6. Misenum Pr., 
now Punta di Miseno^ in Campania, S. of Cumae, said to 
have derived its name from Misenus, the companion and 
trumpeter of Aeneas, who was drowned and buried here. 
The bay formed by this promontory was converted by 
Augustus into an excellent harbor, and was made the prin- 
cipal station of the Roman fleet on the Tyrrhene sea. A 
town sprung up around the harbor, and here the admiral 
of the fleet usually resided, The Roman nobles had pre-, 
viously built villas on the coast. Here was the villa of C. 
Marius, which was jDurchased by Lucullus, and which after- 
wards passed into the hands of the emperor Tiberius, who 
died in this place. 7. Circeium Pr., also written Cir- 
caeum, now Monte Circello^ on the coast of Latium, The 
oysters caught off this point were celebrated. Some 
writers suppose Circe to have resided on this promontory, 
and that hence it derived its name. 8. Populonium 
Pr., now Capo di Cainpana^ a lofty hill in Etruria, sink- 
ing abruptly to the sea. On it was the ancient town of 
Populonia, of the walls of which there still are remains, 
showing that the city was only about 1^ mile in circum- 
ference. 

EIYEES. 

1 2. The P a d u s , now the Po, was the chief river of Italy, 
It rises from two springs on the E. side of Mount Vesulus 

giving tho modern names. 12. Trace tlie Padua ; -what its principal moxith, and 



ITALIA. 95 

{Monte Viso) in the Alps, and flows with a general east- 
erly direction through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, 
which it divides into two parts, Gallia Cispadana and Gal- 
lia Transpadana. About 20 miles from the sea the river 
divides itself into two main branches, of which the IST. one 
was called Padoa {Maestro^ Po Grande^ or Po delle 
Fornaci) and the S. one Olana, {Po d''Ariano ;) and each 
of these now falls into the Adriatic by several mouths. The 
ancient writers enumerate seven of these mouths, some of 
which were canals. The southernmost is the principal 
mouth, and is called Padiisa, now Primaro. It was also 
called Ostium Spineticum, from the town of Spina at 
its mouth. 

13. The Greek poets described the Padus, under the 
name Eridanus, as the stream which received the falling 
Phaeton and collected the amber tears of his sorrowing 
sisters ; but they added no local marks by which the iden- 
tity of the Eridanus with the great river of Italy could be 
certified. It is certain, however, that the names of Padus 
and Eridanus in process of time became synonymous. 

14. The principal tributaries of the Padus on the IST. 
were: — 1. The Duria, now the Pora Baltea^ which rises in 
the S. of the Alps. 2. The Ticinus, now the Tessino, 
which rises in Mons Adula, (St. Gothard,) and after flowing 
through Lacus Yerbanus, (Lago Maggiore,) flows into the 
Padus near Ticinum. Upon the bank of this river Hanni- 
bal gained his first victory over the Romans by the defeat 
of P. Scipio, B. c. 218. 3. The Addiia, now Adda, which 
jises in the Rhaetian Alps and flows through the Lacus 
Larius, (Lago di Como.) 4. The Mincius, now MiJicio, 
flows through the Lacus Benacus, (Lago di Garda;) falls 
into the Po a little below Mantua. 

15. The two most important tributaries of the Padus 
from the S. are the Tanarus, now Tanaro, and more to 
the E. the Trebia, now l^e5&^a, memorable for the victory 
which Hannibal gained over the Romans b. c. 218. 

16. The Rhenus, now Peno, was a small tributary of 
the Padus, near Bononia, on a small island of which Octa- 
vian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the celebrated second 
triumvirate. 



what the number of its mouths ? 13, For what was this river famed in mythology ? 
14. ISTame and point out the principal tributaries of the Padus on the North, beginning 
at the West. 15. Two principal tribiitaries of Padus on S. and the easternmost of 
the two famed for what ? 16. "Where was the Rhenus, and how noted in Roman his- 



96 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

17. The Arniis, now Aimo, was the chief riv^er of 
Etruria. It rises in the Apennines, flows by Pisae, and falls 
into the Tyrrhenian Sea. 

18. The chief river in central Italy is the Tiber is, also 
called Tibris, Thybris, Amnis Tiberinus, or simply 
Tiberinus, now Tiber or Tevere^ on which stood the city of 
Rome. It is said to have been originally called Albiila, 
and to have received the name of Tiberis in consequence of 
Tiberinus, King of Alba, having been drowned in it. It has 
been supposed that Albula was the Latin and Tiberis the 
Etruscan name of the river. The Tiber rises from two springs 
of hmpid water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, and 
flows in a S. W. direction, separating Etruria from Umbria, 
the land of the Sabines, and Latium. 

19. The tributaries of the Tiberis from the E. were : — 1. 
the Tinia, now Timia ; 2, the ]^ar; 3, the Allia; 4, 
the Anio; and 5, the Almo. 

20. The IsTar, now Nerci^ rising in Mons Fiscellus, on 
the frontiers of IJmbria and Picenum, flows in a S. W. 
direction and falls into the Tiber not far from Ocriculum. 
It was celebrated for its sulphureous waters and white color. 
It formed the boundary between Umbria and the land of 
the Sabini. 

21. The Allia, or more correctly Alia, now Aia^ 
rises about 11 miles from Rome, near Crustumerium, and 
flows into the Tiber about 6 miles from Rome. -It is 
memorable by the shameful defeat of the Romans by the 
Gauls on its banks, July 16, b. c. 390, which day, called 
" dies Alhensis, " was hence marked as an unlucky day in , 
the Roman calendar. 

22. The Anio, now Teverooie (a corruption of Tiberi- 
nus) or PAniene, anciently Anien, (hence the Gen. Ani- 
enis,) the most celebrated of the tributaries of the Tiber, 
rises in the mountains of the Hernici near Treba, (Trevi,) 
flows first ^N". W., then S. W. through narrow mountain- 
valleys, forms at Tibur beautiful water falls, (hence " prae- 
ceps Anio,") and flows, forming the boundary between La- 
tium and the land of the Sabines, into the Tiber 3 miles 
above Rome. 

23. The Clitumnus, now Clittmi7io, a small river in 

tory ? 17. Where Tvas the Arnus ? IS. VThere was the Tiheris : "what other 
names had it, and what did it separate? 19. What tribiitaries had the Tiber 
from the East ? 20. For what was the Nar noted, and what did it separate? 21. 
"Where was the Allia; for what memorable, givins: rise to what phrase? 22. 
Where and what was the Anio, and what Avas formed bj' it ? 23. Where was the 



ITALIA. 97 

Umbria, siDiings from a beautiful rock in a grove of cji^ress 
trees, where was a sanctuary of the god Clitumnus, and falls 
into the Tinia. 

?4. The Velinus, now Velino, in the territory of the 
Sabmes, rises in the central Apennines, and falls into the 
IN ar. The river in the neighborhood of Reate overflowed 
Its banks and formed several small lakes, the largest of 
which was called Lacus Velinus, (Fiedi Lago, also Laqo 
delle Marmore,) In order to carry off these waters, a 
channel was cut through the rocks by Curius Dentatus, 
the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of which the wa- 
ters of the Velinus were carried through a narrow goro-e 
to a spot where they fell from a height of several hundred 
feet into the ISTar. This fall, which is one of the most 
celebrated m Europe, is known at the present day by the 
name of the fall of Terni, or the Cascade delle Marmore. 
ihe region through which this river flows is one of the 
most beautiful in ail Italy. 

25. The tributaries of the Tiber from the W. were :~~A 
The Cremera, a small river inEtruria, which falls into the 
iiber a nttle above Rome : it is memorable for the death 
of the 300 Fabii. Its modern name is Vaha. 

B. The Clanis, now Chiana, also in Etruria, rises S. 
of Arretium, forms two small lakes near Clusium, W. of 
Lacus Trasimenus, and flows into the Tiber E. of Vulsinii. 

26. The Liris, more anciently called Clanis or 
•brlanis, now Garigliano, rises in the Apennines W. of the 
Lacus Fucmus, and flows into the Sinus Caietanus near 
Mmturnae. Its stream was sluggish. 

27. The Vul turn us, now Volturno, the chief river m 
Campania, rises in the Apennmes in Samnium, and falls into 
the Tyrrhene Sea, 

^28. The Aufidus, now Ofanto,was the principal river 
ox Apuha, and rising in the Apennines in the territory of 
the Hirpini in Samnium, flows at first with a rapid current, - 
and then more slowly, into the Adriatic. The celebrated 
village of Cannae, where Hannibal so signally defeated 
the Romans, was situated about 5 miles from Canusium 
towards the sea, and at no great distance from the Aufidus. 
29. The Metaurus, now Metaro, a small river in Um- 

Clitumnus, arid for what noted? 24. Where was the Velinus y What change was 

Tfber'Sn 'the We'.t%"%^^W>'""' thus formed ? 25. What tributadesEfS The 
Juoer on the West? 26. Where was the Lir s, and what its character 2 27 
Where was the Vulturnus ? 28. Where was the Aufidurwhat its diaracter 
what famous battle-field near it ? 29. Where was the uT^S:iBj^tnafovwhitmlm: 
5 



08 ANCIENT GEOGUAPIIY. 

bria, flowing into the Adriatic, is rendered memorable by 
the defeat and death of Ilasdrubal, the brother of Hanni- 
bal, on its banks, b. c. 207. 

30. The llubico, (Rubicon,) now Pisatello^ a small 
river, falling into the Adriatic a little IST. of Ariminum, 
formed the boundary in the llepublican period between the 
province of Gallia Oisalpina and Italia proper. It is cele- 
brated in history on account of Caesar's crossing it at the 
head of his army, by which act he declared war against 
the republic. 

31. The Athcsis, now the Adige or J5Jtsch , next to 
the Padus the largest river in Italia, rises in the Rhaetian 
Alps, flows through Upper Italy past Verona, and falls into 
the Adriatic by many mouths. 

32. The Timavus, now Timao, was a small river in 
the ]N". of Italy, forming the boundary between Istria and 
Venetia, and falling into the Sinus Tergestinus in the 
Adriatic, between Tergeste and Aquileia. This river is 
frequently celebrated by the poets and other ancient 
writers, who speak of its numerous sources, its lake, and 
its subterraneous passage ; but these accounts seem, to a 
great extent, fabulous. 

LAKES. 

33. The lakes in Latium are: — A. The EegillusLacus, 
now Jjogo Hegillo, or, according to Long, Cormifelle^ to the 
E. of Rome, in the territory of Tusculum, between Labicum 
and Gabii. It is memorable for the victory gained on its 
banks by the Romans over the Latins b. c. 498. It cannot 
be identified with certainty with any modern lake. 

B. Lacus Alb an us, now Lago cU Alba7io, was a 
small lake, about 5 miles in circumference, W. of the Mons 
Albanus, between Bovillae and Alba Longa: it is the 
crater of an extmct volcano, and is many hundred feet 
deep. The emissarium which the Romans bored through 
the solid rock during tlie siege of Veil, in order to carry 
ofi" the superfluous water of the lake, is extant at the present 
day. 

34. The lakes in Campania are : — A. The Lacus Aver - 
mis, now JOa go Aver?io, close to the promontory which 
runs out into the sea between Cumae and Puteoli. This 
lake fills the crater of an extinct volcano : it is circular, 

orablo ? SO. "Whcro -was the Riibico, and -what gavo it importance ? 81. Whore 
Avaa the Athcsis, and how did it rank ? 32. Where was the TimaviiB, and how 
was it colobratod? o3. What lakes aro to bo noted in Latium ? 34. Give an ao- 



ITALIA. 99" 

about 1^ mile in circumference, is very deep, and is sur- 
rounded by high banks, which in antiquity were covered 
by a gloomy forest sacred to Hecate. From its waters 
mephitic vapors arose, which are said to have killed the 
birds that attempted to fly over it, from which circum- 
stance its Greek name "Aopi/o? At/xvTy, was supposed to be 
derived, from a, priv., and 6pvL<s. The lake was celebrated 
in mythology on account of its connection with the lower 
world. 

JS. The Lacus Lucrlnus was properly the inner 
part of the Sinus Cumanus or Puteolanus, a bay on the 
coast of Campania, between the 23romontory Misenum and 
Puteoli, running a considerable way inland. But at a very 
early period the Lucrine lake was separated from the re- 
mainder of the bay by a dike 8 stadia in length, which was 
probably formed originally by some volcanic change, and 
was subsequently rendered more complete by the hand of 
man. Being thus separated from the sea, it assumed the 
character of an inland lake, and is therefore called Lacus 
by the Ilomans. Its waters still remained salt, and were 
celebrated for their oyster beds. Immediately behind 
the Lucrine was the Lacus Avernus. In the time of Au- 
gustus, Agrippa made a communication between these two 
lakes, and also between the Lucrine and the Sinus Cumanus, 
thus forming out of the three the celebrated Juhan Harbor. 
The Lacus Lucrinus'was filled up by a volcanic eruption 
in 1538, when a conical mountain rose in its place, called 
Monte Nuovo. The Avernus has thus become again a 
separate lake, and no trace of the dike is to be seen in the 
Gulf of Pozzuoli. 

35. The Lacus Ampsanctus or Amsanctus, now 
JLago d'Ansanti or Mvfiti or MofeU^ was a small lake in Sam- 
nium near Aeculanum, from which mephitic vapors arose. 
Near it was a chapel of the god Mephitis, with a cavern from 
which mephitic vapors also came, and which was therefore 
regarded as an entrance to the lower world, (Virg. -^n. 
VII. 363 sqq.) 

36. In Etruria the following four lakes are to be noted : — 
the Lacus Trasimenus, the L. Volsiniensis, the L. 
Vadimonis, the L. Sabatinus. 

A. TheLacus Trasimenus, now Lag o cli Perugia^ 

count of the lakes in Campania : A. of tlie Avernus. B. of the Lucrinus. 35. 
What lake in Bamnium, and what its character ? 36. What hikes to ha noted in 
Etruria? A. Where was tho Lacus Trasimenus, and for what noted in history ? 



100 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

between Clusium and Perusia, is memorable for the vic- 
tory gained by Hannibal over the Romans under Flaminius, 
B. c. 217. 

JB, The Lacus Yolsiniensis or Yulsiniensis, now 
JLago di Bolsena^ derived its name from the ancient city 
Vulsinii at its N. E. extremity. This lake contains two 
beautiful islands. 

C. The Lacus Vadimonis, now JLago di Sojssano^ 
was a small circular lake, with sulphureous waters. It is 
celebrated in history for the defeat of the Etruscans in two 
great battles, first by the dictator Papirius Cursor, in b. c. 
309, from th.e effects of which they never recovered ; and 
again in 283, when the allied forces of the Etruscans and 
Gauls were routed by the consul Cornehus Dolabella. The 
lake has so shrunk in dimensions that it is now only a small 
stagnant pond, almost lost in the tall reeds and bulrushes 
which grow in it. 

D. The Lacus Sabatlnus derived its name from 
Sabate, a city situated not far, probably, from the site of 
the present Bracciano^ which now gives its name to the 
lake. It was said that a town had formerly been swallowed 
ujD by the L. Sabatinus ; and it was even asserted that in 
calm weather its ruins might still be seen below the surface 
of the water. 

37. In the centre of Italy and in the country of the 
Marsi was the Fucinus Lacus, a" large lake, about 30 
miles in circumference, into which all the mountain streams 
of the Apennines flow. As the water of this lake had no 
visible outlet, and frequently inundated the surrounding 
country, the emperor Claudius constructed an emissarium 
or artificial channel for carrying off the waters of the lake 
into the river Liris. This emissarium is still nearly perfect : 
it is almost 3 miles in length. It appears that the actual 
drainage was relinquished soon after the death of Claudius, 
for it was reopened by Hadrian. This lake is now called 
Lago di Celano, or Fucino^ or Gapistrano. 

38. The following four lakes are in GalHa Cisalpina: 
— 1. Lacus Yerbanus. 2. Lacus Larius. 3. Lacus 
Sebinus. 4. Lacus Benacus. 

39. Of the lakes in Gallia Cisalpina, the Lacus Ver- 

B. Whence the name of the L. VolBinieneis, and for -what is it noted ? C. De- 
scribe the L. Vadimonis, and state for what it is celebrated. J). From what did 
the Lacus Sabatinus derive its name, and -what is reported respecting it ? 37. 
What lake in the country of the Marsi, and what is particularly noteworthy re- 
specting it ? 38. What four lakes in Gallia Cisalpina ? 39. Where was the Lacus 



ITALIA. 101 

baniis is both the farthest E". and the farjjaest W. It is 
the largest lake in all Italy, being about 40 miles in length 
from N. to S. ; its greatest breadth is 8 miles. It is formed 
by the river Ticinus (Tessino) and other streams descending 
from the Alps ; and the river Ticinus issues from its south- 
ern extremity. Its modern name is Xago Maggiore. 

40. To the E. of the preceding was theLacus Larius, 
now JLaJce of Como, si> beautiful lake running from N. to S., 
through which the river Adda flows. After extending 
about 15 miles, it is divided into two branches, of which the 
one to the S. W. is about 18 miles in length, and the one 
to the S. E. about 12 miles. At the extremity of the S. W. 
branch was the town of Comum, now Como, giving the 
lake its modern name. At the extremity of the S. E. 
branch, the river Adda issues out of the lake. The beauty 
of the scenery of this lake is praised by Pliny, who had 
several villas on its banks. 

41. To the E. of the foregoing, between the lakes 
Larius and Benacus, was the Lacus Sebinus, formed by 
the river OUius. It is now called Xago JSeo, or d^Iseo. 

42. Still further to the E. was the Lacus Benacus, 
now Xago di Garda^ out of which the Mincius flows. It 
was next in size to the Larius., 

43. There are many gulfs and bays on the Itahan coast. 
The most important gulfs are : — 1. Ligusticus Sinus, now 
Gulf of Genoa. 2. The Sin. Cumanus or Sin. Crater, 
now the Bay of Naples^ bounded by the promontories of 
Misenum (Punta di Miseno) and Minervae, {Punta delta 
Campa7iella.) 3. SinusPaestanus,now Gulf of Salerno. 
4. Sinus Lameticus, or Terinaeus, or Hipponiates, 
orYibonensis, now Gulf of St. Eufemia. 5. Directly 
opposite the preceding, on the southern coast, is the Sinus 
Scyllacius or Scylleticus, now Gulf of Squillace. And 
higher up, 6. The spacious Sinus Tarentinus, now the 
Gulf of Taranto^ deriving its name from the ancient city 
of Tarentum, now called Taranto, and separating lapygia 
and Lucania. 7. In the extreme IsT. E. of the Mare Hadriat- 
icum, the Sinus Tergestinus, named from the city of 
Tergeste, now Trieste. 

44. Adria, or Mare Adriaticum, also Mare 

Verbantis, -what its size, and how formed? 40. Where was the Lacus Larius, 
what its dimensions, and the nature of its scenery ? 41. Where was the Lacus Se- 
binus, and how formed ? 42. Where was the Lacus Benacus ? 43. Name and 
point out the most important Gulfs on the Italian Coast. 44, What seas wash 
the coasts of Italy ? 



102 AKCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

Superum, so called from the town Adria between the 
mouths of the Po and the Athesis, was, in its Tvidest sig- 
nification, the Sea between Italy on the "W. and Illyricnm, 
Epirus, and Greece on the E., while the MareTyrrhenum 
or Etruscum, otherwise called the Mare Infer um, 
bounded the peninsula on the West. 

1,— Upper Italy* 

1. Upper Italy, extending from the Alps to the rivers 
Macra on the W. and Kubico on the E., comprehended : — 
A. Liguria; JB. Gallia Cisalpina; G. Yenetia, includ- 
ing Carnia — ^Istria or Histria. 

A. — Liguria. 

2. In the time of Augustus Liguria was bounded on 
the W. by the river Varus and the Maritime Alps, which 
separated it from Transalpine Gaul, on the S. E. by the 
river Macra, which separated it from Etruria, on the S". by 
the river Padus, and on the S. by the Mare Ligusticum. 

3. The inhabitants of Liguria were called by the Greeks 
Ligyes and Ligystini, and by the Romans Li gures, 
(sing. Ligus, more rarely Ligur.) They were in early 
times a powerful and widely extended people ; but their 
origin is uncertain, some writers supposing them to be 
Celts, others Iberians, and others again of the same race as 
the Siculians, or most ancient inhabitants of Italy. 

4. On the coast, a little E. of the river Var, was ISTicaea, 
now Nizza or iV^ce, a colony of Massilia, and subject to 
that city ; hence it was considered as belonging to Gaul, 
though it was just beyond the frontier. It first became 
important as a stronghold of the Christian religion. 

5. Genua, now Genoa^ an important commercial town, 
situated at the extremity of the Ligurian Gulf, (Gulf of 
Genoa,) was in the possession of the Romans at the begin- 
ning of the second Punic war, but towards the end of the 
war was held for some time by the Carthaginian Mago. 
It was a Roman municipium, but it did not become of polit- 
ical importance till the middle ages, when it was com- 
monly called Janua. 

1. What are the divisions of Upper Italy ? 2. How was Lignria bounded in 
the time of Augustus ? 3. What different opinions have been entertained respect- 
ing the Ligurians ? 4. Where was Nicaea? In what respect important? 5. 
Where and what was Genua ? 6. Where was Clastidium, and for what was it 



ITALIA. 103 

6. Clastidium, now Gasteggio^ was a fortified town 
not far from the Padus, on tlie road from Dertona to Pla- 
centia. It was celebrated as the place w^here Claudius 
Marcellus gained the spolia opima, by vanquishing and slay- 
ing Viridomarus, king of the Gaesatae in Transpadane 
Gaul. Clastidium was betrayed to Hannibal after the bat- 
tle of the Ticinus, with considerable magazines which the 
Romans had laid up there, and it formed the chief depot of 
the Carthaginian army while encamped on the Trebia. 

7. On the upper course of the Padus, at the foot of the 
Alps, dwelt the Taurini. Their chief town was T aura- 
si a, afterwards colonized by Augustus, and called Augusta 
Taurinorum^ now Turin. 

8. The Alpes Cottiae or Co ttian Alps, derived their 
name from Cottius, king of several Ligurian tribes in this 
mountain-range. He submitted to Augustus, who granted 
him the sovereignty over twelve of these tribes, with the 
title of Praefectus. Cottius thereupon made roads over 
the Alps, and erected b. c. 8, at Segusio, now Suza^ a tri- 
umphal arch in honor of Augustus, extant at the present 
day. 

B. — Gallia Cisalpina, 

1. The name Gallia Cisalpina or Gallia Citerior, 
as employed by the Romans, signifies Gaul this side of the 
Alps, and was applied to the northern portion of Italy, par- 
tially enclosed by the Alps. The name is derived from 
Gallic tribes, of whom five distinct immigrations into the 
ISr. of Italy are mentioned. After a long struggle and re- 
peated defeats, the whole country settled by them was con- 
quered by the Romans, and reduced, 222 b. c, to the state 
of a Roman province. The inhabitants, however, did not 
bear the yoke patiently, and it was not till after the final 
defeat of the Boii in 191 b. c, that the country became 
submissive to the Romans., and as the inhabitants thus 
acquired the right to wear the Roman toga, their country 
was now called Gallia To gat a. Strictly speaking, how- 
ever, this epithet was applied only to the southern portion 
of the province. 



celebrated ? 7. Where was the country of the Taurini, and what its chief town ? 8. 
From whom, did the Alpes Cottiae or Cottianae, derive their name, and for what 
is he remarkable ? 

1. What does the name Gallia Cisalpina or G-. Citerior denote, to what part of 
Italy was it applied, and why, and what other name had it subsequently, and 



104: Al^CIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

2. Gallia Cisalpina was bounded on the W. by Gallia 
Xarbonensis, from wMcli it was separated by the Alps, on 
the N. by Rhaetia and E'oricum, on the E. by the Adriatic 
and Yenetia^ from which it was separated by the Athesis, 
and on the S. by Lignria, Etruria, and Umbria, from which 
last it was separated by the river Rubico. 

3. The greater part of the country is a vast plain, 
drained by the Padus and its affluents, and has always been 
one of the most fertile countries of Europe. 

4. This province was divided by the Padus into Gallia 
Transpadana or Gaul beyond the i^o, also called Italia 
Transpadana, in the E"., and Gallia Cispadana, or 
Gaul this side of the Po^ in the S. 

5. The most important tribes in G. Transpadana were, 
the Salassi in the extreme K. W., the Libici and Laevi, 
the Insubres, the Cenomani, and the Euganei, to 
which may be added the Taurini in the W. 

6. The most important tribes of G. Cispadana were, from 
W. to E. the Ananes, the Boii, and the Lingones. 
The name of the Ananes is sometimes written An a manes, 
or Anamani, and even Andres. 

T. The principal town of the Salassi was Augusta 
Praetoria, now Aosta, at the foot of the Graian and 
Pennine Alps, colonized by Augustus with soldiers of the 
praetorian cohorts, whence its name. The modern town 
still contains many Roman remains, the most important of 
which are the town gates and a triumphal arch. 

8. On the river Sessites, now the Sessia, was Ye re el- 
la e, now YercelU^ the chief town of the Libici. It was 
subsequently a Roman municipium, and a place of consid- 
erable importance. 

9. I^ovaria, now AToi'arc?, was situated on a river of 
the same name, now the Gogna^ and on the road from 
Mediolanum to Yercellae. It was subsequently a Roman 
municipium. 

10. Ticinum, now Pavia^ was a town of the Laevi, 
according to others, of the Insubres, on the left bank of 
the Ticinus, (Tessino.) It was subsequently a Roman 
municipium ; but it owed its greatness to the Lombard 

for what reason ? 2. What \vere the boundaries of Gallia Cisalpina? 3. What 
was the character of the country ? 4. What -were the great divisions of this prov- 
ince, and 'bj "vvhat made ? 5.' Kame and point out the principal tribes in G. 
Transpadana, beginning at the W. 6. Name and point out the principal tribes 
in G. Cispadana. 7. What was the principal town of the Salassi, by whom 
settled, and whence its name ? 8. Where was Vercellae, and the capital of whom ? 
9. Where was Novaria ? 10. Where was Ticinum, and what was the origin of ita 



ITALIA. 105 

kings, who made it the capital of their dominions. The 
Lombards gave it the name of Papia, which it still retains 
under the slightly changed form of Pavia. 

11. The capital of the Insubres was Mediolanum, 
now Milan, situated in an extensive plain between the rivers 
Ticinus and Addua. It was taken by the Romans b. c. 222, 
and afterwards became both a municipium and a colony. 
On the new division of the empire by Diocletian, it became 
the residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued 
to be the usual residence of the emperors of the West, till 
the irruption of Attila, who took and plundered the town, 
induced them to transfer the seat of government to the 
more strongly fortified town of Ravenna. Mediolanum was 
at this time one of the first cities of the empire : it possessed 
an imperial mint, and was the seat of an archbishopric. It 
is celebrated in ecclesiastical history as the seat of St. 
Ambrose. On the fall of the Western Empire, it became 
the residence of Theodoric the Great and the capital of the 
Ostrogothic kingdom, and surpassed even Rome itself in 
populousness and prosperity. It received a fearful blow 
in A. D. 539, when, in consequence of having sided with 
Belisarius, it was taken by the Goths under Yitiges, a great 
part destroyed, and its inhabitants, to the number of 300,- 
000, according to Procopius, put to the sword. It how- 
ever gradually recovered, in a good degree, from the 
efiects of this blow, and was a place of importance under 
the Lombards, whose capital however, as we have just seen, 
was Pavia. The modern Milan contains no remains of 
antiquity, with the exception of 16 handsome fluted pillars 
near the church of S. Lorenzo. 

12. Laus Pompeia or Pompeii, now JLodi Vecchio, 
was situated IST. W. of Placentia and S. E. of Mediolanum. 
It was founded by the Boii, and was afterwards made a 
municipium by Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompeius 
Magnus, whence it was called by his name. 

13. Co mum, now Como, was situated at the S. extrem- 
ity of the W. branch of the Lacus Larius, (X(^^(? di Como^ ^ 
Originally a town of the Insubrian Gauls, it was colonized 
by Pompeius Strabo, by Cornelius Scipio, and by Julius 
Caesar. Caesar settled there 6,000 colonists, among whom 
were 500 distinguished Greek families, and this new popu- 
lation so greatly exceeded the number of the old inhabi- 

modern name ? 11. Name, point out, and give some account of the capital of the 
Ineubres. 12. Where was Laus Pompeia, (Pompeii,) and why so called? 13. 
5* 



106 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

tants, that the town was called Novum Comum, a name, 
however, which it did not retain. Comum, celebrated 
for its iron manufactories, carried on considerable com- 
merce with the North. It was the birthplace of the younger 
Pliny. 

14. Brixia, now Brescia^ on the road from Comum to 
Aquileia, was probably founded by the Etruscans, after- 
wards a town of the Libui, then the capital of the Ceno- 
mani, and finally became a Roman municipium with the 
rights of a colony. The river Mella flowed through it : 
(flavus quam molli pcrcurrit flumine Mella. Catull.) 

15. Cremona, probably first founded by Gauls, was a 
Roman colony, N. of the Padus, and not far from the con- 
fluence of that river and the Addua. As a Roman colony 
it was founded, together with Placentia, b. c. 219, as a 
protection against the Gauls and Ilannibal's invading army. 
It soon became a place of great importance, and one of the 
most flourishing cities in the N". of Italy ; but having, in 
the civil wars during the reigns of Otho and Yitellius, 
espoused the cause of the latter, it was totally destroyed by 
the troops of Vespasian a. d. 69. It was rebuilt by Vespa- 
sian, but never recovered its former greatness. 

16. Bedriacum was a small town between Cremona and 
Verona celebrated for the defeat both of Otho and of the 
Vitellian troops, a. d. 69. 

17. Mantua was situated on an island in the river 
Mincius, now the Mincio, and still retains its ancient name. 
It was not a place of importance, but is celebrated because 
Virgil, who was born at the neighboring village of Andes, 
regarded Mantua as his birthplace, whence it is generally 
so reputed. It was originally an Etruscan city, and is 
fabulously reported to have derived its name from Manto, 
a prophetess and daughter of Tiresias the Theban. 

18. Verona was on the river Athesis, (Adige:) it was 
originally the capital of the Euganei, but subsequently be- 
longed to the Cenomani. At a still later time it was made 
a Roman colony, with the surname Augusta ; and under 
the empire it was one of the largest and most flourishing 
towns in the N. of Italy. It was the birthplace of Catullus, 

Where "svas Comnm, n,nd noted as tlie birthplace of whom ? 14. What and whero 
■vvas the capital of the Cenomani ? 15. Where was Cremona, and why was it 
settled ? What misfortune befell the city, and from what cause ? 16. Where waa 
Bedriacum, and what two battles were fought in its vicinity? 17. Where was 
Mantua, usually, and from Avhat circumstanc"c, reported the birthplace of whom ? 
From whom is it said to have derived its name ? 18. Where was Verona, and 



ITALIA. 107 

and according to some accounts, of the elder Pliny, though 
others make him a native of Comum. 

19. Placentia, now Piacenza^ was founded, as a 
Roman colony, at the same time and for the same purpose 
as Cremona, (which see,) b. c. 219. It was situated in the 
territory of the Ananes or Anamani, on the right bank of 
the Padus, not far from the mouth of the Trebia, and on 
the road from Mediolanum to Parma. It was taken and 
destroyed by the Gauls in 200, but was soon rebuilt by the 
Romans, and became an important place. It continued to 
be a flourishing town down to the time of the Goths. 

20. The principal towns of the Boii were situated along 
the Aurelian Way, and were the following: — 1. Parma, 
still retaining the same name. 2. Forum Lepidi, or 
Regium Lepidi, or Regium Lepidum, or simply 
Regium, now lieggio. 3. Mutina, now Modena. 4. 
Forum Gallorum, now Castel Franco. 5. Bononia, 
now Bologna. 6. Caesena, still retaining its name, 
Cese7%a. 

21. The principal town of the Lingones was Ravenn a, 
still bearing the same name, on the river Bedcsis, now the 
Ronco, and about a mile from the sea, though it is now 
about 5 miles in the interior in consequence of the sea 
having receded all along this coast. Ravenna was situated 
in the midst of marshes, and was accessible in only one 
direction by land, probably by the road leading from 
Ariminum. In consequence of the marshy nature of the 
soil most of the houses were built of wood and on piles, and 
since an arm of the principal canal was carried through 
some of the principal streets, the communication was car- 
ried on to a great extent by gondolas, as in modern 
Venice. The town was very deficient in a supply of good 
drinking-water ; but it was not considered unhealthy, since 
the canals drained the marshes to a great extent, and the 
ebb and flow of the tide prevented the waters from stag- 
nating. 

22. Ravenna was long an insignificant place, and its 
greatness does not begin till the time of the empire, when 
Augustus made it one of the two chief stations of the Roman 
fleet. This emperor not only enlarged the town, but caus- 
ed a large harbor to be constructed on the coast, capable 

whose birthplace was it ? 19. Where was Placentia, and how is it noted in Eoman 
history ? 20. Name and point out the principal towns of the Boii along the Aure- 
lian Way. 21. What was the principal city of the Lingones, where and how sit- 



108 AKCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

of containing 240 triremes, and he connected this harbor 
with the Padus by means of a canal called Padusa or 
Augusta Fossa. This harbor was called Classes, and 
between it and Ravenna a new town sprung up, to which 
the name of Caesarea was given. All three were subse- 
quently formed into one town, and were surrounded with 
strong fortifications. Ravenna thus suddenly became one 
of the most important places in the N. of Italy. 

23. Spina, now Spinazzino^ also in the territory of the 
Lingones, was situate on the most southerly of the mouths 
of the Padus, which was called after it Ostium Spineticum. 
It was a ver}^ ancient town, said to have been founded by 
the Greeks, but in the time of Strabo had ceased to be a 
place of any importance. 



O. — ^Venetia and Histria. 
I. — Yexetia. 

1. Yenetia derived its name from its inhabitants, 
the Yeneti, frequently called Heneti ('Ei'erot) by the 
Greeks. 

2. There is much uncertainty respecting the origin of the 
Yeneti or Heneti. Several fobulous accounts regarding 
them were current among the ancients. Herodotus, who 
was well acquainted with them, regards them as an Illyrian 
race ; and all writers are agreed that they did not belong 
to the original population of Italy, and it may be considered 
certain that they were the last people who penetrated into 
Italy around the northern extremity of the Adriatic. 

3. In consequence of their hostility to the Celtic tribes 
in their neighborhood, the Yeneti formed, at an early 
period, an alliance with Rome ; and their country was de- 
fended by the Romans against their dangerous enemies. 
On the conquest of the Cisalpine Gauls, the Yeneti likewise 
became included under the Roman dominions ; and they 
were almost the only people in Italy who became the sub- 
jects of Rome without ofiering any resistance. 

4. In the fifth century many of the inhabitants of 
Yenetia, to escape the ravages of the Huns under Attila, 

nated? 22. For -«-hat purpose did Augustus use Eavenna, making Tvhat im- 
proveme'.its? 23. Where was Spina, and how noted? 

1. What is the origin of the name Venetia? 2. WTiat Is known of the origin 
of the Yeneti ? 3. How did the Yeneti become connected with Rome ? 4. What 



ITALIA. 109- 

took refuge on the islands of their coast. Here they were 
joined, from time to time, by fresh arrivals of their 
countrymen, flying before the invading hordes of barba- 
rians. And this was the origin of the great city of Venice, 
which ere long became a powerful and opulent commercial 
Btate. 

5. The boundaries of Venetia are variously given. Ac- 
cording to some authorities they were, on the W. the river 
Athesis, which separated it from Gallia Cisalpina ; on the 
N. the Carnic Alps ; on the E. the river Timavus, which 
separated it from Istria ; and on the S. the Sinus Adriaticus. 

6. In historical times the Carni occupied a considerable 
portion of the E. half of Venetia. Cramer calls them an 
Alpine nation, and says that though of Celtic origin, it is prob- 
able that they were descended from the Taurisci, rather 
than the Gauls, as the Fasti Capitolini assert. Their exist- 
ence is still to be traced in the modern appellation of 
Carniola. 

II.~ ISTEIA or HiSTEIA. 

v. Histria or. Istria was a peninsula at the iN". ex- 
tremity of the Adriatic, between the Sinus Tergestinus on 
the W. and the Sinus Flanaticus on the E. It was separated 
from Venetia on the N". W. by the river Timavus, and from 
lUyricum on the E. by the river Arsia, now the Arsa. Its 
inhabitants, the Istri or Histri, were a warlike Illyrian 
race, who carried on several wars with the Romans, till 
their final subjugation by the consul C. Claudius Pulcher, 
B. c. 17Y. 

8. Hadria or Adria, also called Atrica, was a town 
between the mouths of the Padus and the Athesis, on the 
Tartarus, now Tartaro^ or Hadrianus. It was in ancient 
times a great and powerful city, and is said to have given 
the Adriatic sea its name. In consequence of changes in 
the coast it became and is now an insignificant inland town, 
still called Adria. 

9. Another ancient town of the Veneti was Patavium, 
now Padova or Padua^ situate on the Medoacus Minor, 
{Bacchiglione^ and on the road from Mutina to Altinum. It 
was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. 

was the origin of the city of Venice ? 5. How was Venetia bounded ? 6. Where 
did the Carni dwell? 7. What and where was HiRtria, how bounded, and what is 
said of its inhabitants ? 8. Where was Hadria, and to what was it said to have 
given name ? 9. What and where was Patavium ? 10. What does Strabo say of 



110 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

10. According to Strabo, Patavium was one of the 
wealthiest and most prosperous cities of N"orthern Italy, 
and possessed 500 citizens whose fortune entitled them to 
the equestrian rank. 

11. Patavium is celebrated as the birthplace of the 
historian Livy. 

12. Altinum, now Altino, was a wealthy municipium 
at the mouth of the river Silis, now the JSile, and on the 
road from Patavium to Aquileia. It was a prosperous 
manufacturing town, and the chief emporium for all the 
goods which were sent from Southern Italy to the countries 
of the K'orth. There were many beautiful villas around the 
town, on the shores of the Adriatic. 

13. The river Tilavemptus, now the Tagliamento, 
divided Yenetia from the territory of the Carni, some of 
whose cities we shaU now proceed to notice. 

14. Aquileia, now the same, or Aglar^ was a city of 
the Carni, at the very top of the Adriatic, between the 
rivers Sontius, now Isonzo^ and N^atiso, now Natisone^ 
about 60 stadia, i. e. somewhat more than 7 miles, from the 
sea. It was founded by the Romans in b. c. 182 as a bulwark 
against the ]N'orthern barbarians, and is said to have de- 
rived its name from the favorable omen of an eagle appear- 
ing to the colonists. 

15. As it was the key of Italy on the N". E., Aquileia was 
made one of the strongest fortresses of the Romans. From 
its position it became also a most flourishing place of com- 
merce : the Yia Aemilia was continued to this town, and 
from it all the roads to Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Istria 
and Dalmatia branched off. It was taken and completely 
destroyed by Attila in a. d. 452 : its inhabitants escaped 
to the lagoons Avhere Venice was afterwards built. 

16. Tergeste, now Trieste^ was situate on a bay m the 
]Sr. E. of the Adriatic gulf, called after it Tergestinus 
Sinus, now called the gulf of Trieste. For a long time an 
insignificant place, it became, under the Roman dominion, 
a town of considerable commercial importance. It was 
made a Roman colony by Vespasian. 

17. Forum Julii, now Friuli^ so called because 
founded by Juhus Caesar, was a Roman colony to the N". 

Patavium ? 11. Whose birthplace was it ? 12. Where and what -n-as Altinum, and 
for what were its shores used ? 13. What river divided Venetia from the terri- 
tory of the Carni ? 14. Where was Aquileia, and from what . was its namo 
derived? 15. Aquileia was important as what, and what was its fate? 16. 
WTiere was Tergeste, and to what did it give name ? 17. Where was Forum 



ITALIA. Ill 

E. of Aquileia. In the middle ages it became a place of 
importance. 

18. The most important city of Histria or Istria was 
Pol a, still bearing the same name, situated on the W. 
coast, and near the promontory Polaticum, which was the 
most southerly point in the country. Accordmg to tradi- 
tion Pola was founded "by the Colchians, who had been 
sent in pursuit of Medea. It was subsequently a Roman 
colony, when it was called Pietas Julia, and became an im- 
portant commercial town, being united by good roads with 

^Aquileia and the principal towns of Illyria. 

19. Its importance in antiquity is attested by its magnifi- 
cent ruins, of which the prmcipal are those of an amphi- 
theatre, of a triumphal arch (porta aurea) erected to L. 
Sergius by his wife Salvia Postuma, and of several tem- 
ples. 

S. — Central Italy 

A. — ^Etruria. 

1. The country of the Etrusci or Tusci was by the 
Romans called Etriiri a or Tuscia,bythe Greeks Ty r- 
r h e n i a (TvpprjvLo) orTyrsenia, (TvparjvLa. ) 

2. In the day of their power the Etruscans possessed a 
territory considerably more extensive than after their sub- 
jugation by the Romans. As a Roman province, Etruria 
was bounded on the N". and N". W. by the Apennines, 
separating it from Gallia Cisalpina, and by the river Macra 
dividing it from Liguria : on the W. by the Mare Tyrrhe- 
num or Inferum ; on the E. and S. by the river Tiber, 
which sejDarated it from LTmbria and Latium, thus compre- 
hending nearly the whole of modern Tuscany, the Duchy 
of Lucca, and the Transtiberine portion of the Roman 
States. 

3. Various accounts have been given of the origin of 
the Etrurians or Tuscans, of which the most probable is 
this. The most ancient inhabitants appear to have been 
Ligurians in the N". and Siculians in the S., both of whom 
were subsequently expelled from the country by the Um- 
brians. It is at this point that opinions diverge. Most 

Julii, and why so called ? 18. What and where was the chief city of Histria ? 9. 
By what is its ancient importance attested ? 

1. What were the Roman, and what the Greek names of the country of the 
Etrusci ? 2. As a Eoman province how was Etruria bounded ? 3. What is the 



112 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHT. 

modern critics believe that a Pelasgic race, called Tyrrheni, 
subdued the Umbrians, and settled in the country, and that 
these Tyrrhene-Pel asgians were in their turn conquered by 
a powerful Rhaetian race, called Rasena, who descended 
from the Alps and the valley of the Padus. Hence it was 
from the imion of the Tyrrhene-Pelasgians and the Rasena 
that the Etruscan nation was formed. But our utter igno- 
rance of the language which the Etruscans spoke renders it 
impossible to come to a definite conclusion respecting their 
real origin. 

CITIES OF ETEUEIA. 

4. Luna, situated on the left bank of the Macra, 
about 4 miles from the coast, originally formed part of 
Liguria, but became the most northerly city of Etruria, 
when Augustus extended the boundaries of the latter 
country as far as the Macra. It was made a Roman colony 
in B. c. 1'7'7, and 2,000 Roman citizens were settled there. 
Luna was celebrated for its white marble, which now takes 
its name from the neighboring tOT^m of Carrara. The wine 
and the cheeses of Luna also enjoyed a high reputation : 
some of these cheeses are said to have weighed 1,000 
pounds. The ruins, now called Luni^ are fcAv and unim- 
portant. 

5. Luc a, now Iaiccci^ originally a Ligurian city, was 
included in Etruria, and became a Roman colony at the 
same time and under the same circumstances as Luna. 
The amphitheatre of Luca may still be seen at the modern, 
town in a state of tolerable preservation, and its great size 
proves the importance and populousness of the ancient 
city, which was situated at the foot of the Apennines, and 
on the river Auser, ]^. E. of Pisae. 

6. Pisae, more rarely Pisa, now Pisa^ one of the 
most ancient and important of the cities of Etruria, was 
situated at the confluence of the Arnus and Auser, Serchio^ 
about 6 miles from the sea ; but the latter river altered 
its course in the 12th century, and now flows into the sea 
by a separate channel. According to some traditions, Pisae 
was founded by some companions of Kestor, the inhabitants 
of Pisa in Elis, who were driven upon the coast of Italy on 
their return from Troy. Its harbor, called Portus Pisanus, 
at the mouth of the Arnus, was much used by the Ro- 

most probable origin of the Etrurians ? 4. "Where was Luna, and for -what celebrat- 
ed \ 6. Where was Luca, and what proves ita ancient importance ? 6. "S\Tiero was 



ITALIA. 113 

mans ; and in the time of Strabo, (between 54 b. c. and 
A. D. 24,) the town of Pisa was still a place of considerable 
importance on account of the marble quarries in its neigh- 
borhood, and the quantity of timber which it furnished for 
ship-building. 

I. Pistoria was a small place on the road from Luca 
to Florentia, rendered memorable by the defeat and death 
of Catiline in its neighborhood, now Pistoia. 

8. Faesulae, now Fiesole^ situated on a hill three 
miles ]Sr. E. of Florentia, was the headquarters of Catihne's 
army. 

9. Florentia, now generally called Florence^ but in 
Italian, Firenze^ situated on the right bank of the Arnus, W. 
of Faesulae, was a Eoman colony, and probably founded 
by the Romans during their wars with the Ligurians. In 
the time of Sulla it was a flourishing municipium, but its 
greatness as a city dates from the middle ages. 

10. Yolaterrae, now Fb^?^e?T«, called by the Etrus- 
cans Velathri, one of the 12 cities of the Etruscan Con- 
federation, was built on a lofty hill, about 1,800 English 
feet above the level of the sea, rising from a deep valley, and 
precipitous on every side. It was the most northerly city 
of the Confederation, being situated a little N., some say 
on the right bank, of the river Caecina, and had an exten- 
sive territory. In consequence of possessing the two great 
ports of Luna and Populonia, Volaterrae, though so far 
(20 miles) inland, w^as reckoned as one of the powerful 
maritime cities of Etruria. 

II. Vetulonii, Vetulonia, or Vetulonium, was 
one of the 12 cities of the Etruscan Confederation. Its site 
was near the small village Magliano, between the rivers 
Osa and Albegna, and about 8 miles inland. From this 
city the Romans are said to have borrowed the insignia of 
their magistrates — the fasces, sella curulis, and toga prae- 
texta, as w^ell as the use of the brazen trumpet in Avar. 

12. To the S. W. of Vetulonii was Populonium or 
Populonia, situated on a lofty hill, sinking abruptly to 
the sea, and forming a peninsula. It was not one of the 
12 Etruscan cities, and was never a place of political im- 
portance ; but it carried on an extensive commerce, and 

Pisae, and supposed to have been founded by -whom? V. Where was Pistoria, 
and how noted ? 8. Where was Faesulae, and how noted in Catiline's conspiracy ? 
9. Where was Florentia, and what is said of it ? 10. Where was Volaterrae, and 
what its Etruscan name ? 11. Where and what was Vetulonii, and noted for what ? 
12. "Where was Populonium, and what gave it importance ? 13. 'NVhere was Ru- 



114 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

was the princii^al seaport of Etruria. It was destroyed 
by Siilla in the civil wars, and was in ruins in the time of 
Strabo. 

13. Rusellae, now Moselle^ a very ancient city, was 
situated on an eminence E. of the lake Prelius or Prilis, 
and on the Via Aurelia. What is now called Koselle is 
nothing more than the walls of the ancient city, which stiU 
remain, and are some of the most ancient in Italy. 

14. Telamo, or Telamon, or Portus Telamo, now 
Telamone^ was a town and harbor a few miles S. of the 
river Umbro, said to have been founded by the Grecian 
hero Telamon, on his return from the Argonautic expedi- 
tion, lu its neighborhood a great victory was gained in 
B. c. 225 over the Gauls by the consuls C. Atilius and Paulus 
Aemilius. 

15. Cosa or Cossa, near the sea, had a good harbor, 
called Herculis Portus, also called Portus Cossanus, after 
the city. It was a very ancient place, and after the fall of 
Falerii one of the 12 Etruscan cities. There are still ex- 
tensive ruins of its walls and the towers built of polygonal 
masonry. 

16. Tarquinii now Turchina^ near Corneto, was sit- 
uated on a hiU and on the river Marta, S. E. of Cosa. It 
was one of the 12 Etruscan cities, and was probably regard- 
ed as the metropolis of the confederation. It is said to 
have been founded by Tarchon, the son or brother of 
Tyrrhenus, who was the leader of the Lydian colony from 
Asia to Italy. It was at Tarquinii that Demaratus, the 
father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled ; and it was from this 
city that the Tarquinian family came to Rome. After the 
expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus from Rome, the Tarqui- 
nienses, in conjunction with the Veientes, espoused his 
cause; but they were defeated by the Romans, and re- 
duced to subjection about b. c. 310. Tarquinii was subse- 
quently made a Roman colony and a municipium. 

17. Centum Celiac, also written Centumcellae, 
now Civita Vecchia, a sea-port town, is better known 
under the name of Trajani Portus, that emperor having 
caused a magnificent harbor to be constructed here. Two 
immense piers formed the port, which was semicircular, 

Bellae? 14. Where -^as Telamo, and said to have been founded by whom? 15. 
Where was Cosa, giving name to what ? 16. Where was Tarquinii, and how did 
it rank ? It is said to have been founded by whom ? What familj' came from T., 
and whose cause did this city espouse ? 17. What was Centum Cellap, better 
known by what name, from what cause, by whom destroyed, and whenee its mod- 



ITALIA. 115 

while an island, constructed artificially of immense masses 
of rock, brought there by vessels and sunk in the sea, 
served as a breakwater in front and supported a pharos. 
The coast being very destitute of shelter for vessels of 
burden, this work of Trajan was of great national benefit. 
Centum Celiac having been destroyed by the Saracens, 
the inhabitants built another town some distance inland, 
but they afterwards reoccupied the site of the old city, 
which obtained its present name, Civita Yecchia, from that 
circumstance. 

18. Pyrgi or Pyrgos, an ancient Pelasgic town on 
the coast, was used as the port of Caere or Agylla, and was 
a place of considerable importance as a commercial em- 
porium. It was at an early i3eriod the headquarters of the 
Tyrrhenian j^irates. It possessed a very wealthy temple of 
Ilithyia, (Lucina,) which Dionysius of Syracuse plundered 
in B. c. 384. There are still ruins at Santa Severa of the 
ancient polygonal walls of Pyrgi. 

. 19. Caere, called by the Greeks "Ayr AXa, and the site 
of which is now called Cervetri, was situated on a small 
river (Caeritis Amnis) W. of Yeii and about 6 miles from 
the coast. It was an ancient Pelasgic city, and afterwards 
one of the 12 Etruscan cities, with a territory extending 
apparently as far as the Tiber. In early times Caere was 
closely alUed with Rome ; and when the latter city was 
taken by the Gauls, b. c. 390, Caere gave refuge to her 
priests and vestals, and to the women and children. It 
was from this event that the Romans traced the origin of 
their word caerimonia. The Romans out of gratitude are 
said to have conferred upon the Caerites the Roman fran- 
chise without the sufifragium, though it is not improbable 
that the Caerites enjoyed this honor previously. In its 
neighborhood were warm baths which were much fre- 
quented. 

20. Lorium or Loriiwas a small place with an im- 
perial villa, 12 miles IST. W. of Rome, on the Via Aurelia, 
where Antoninus Pius was brought up, and where he died. 

21. Arretium or Arctium, now Ai^ezzo, one of the 
most important of the 12 cities of Etruria, was situated in 
the N". E. of the country at the foot of the Apennines, and 
possessed a fertile territory near the sources of the Arnus 

ern name ? 18. WTiere and -what was Pyrgi, possessing what? 19. Where and 
■what was Caere, and how noted in the history of Rome ? 20. Lorium was where, 
and for what noted ? 21. Where was Arretium, and celebrated for what ? 22. Where 



116 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

and the Tiberis, producing good wine and corn. It was 
thrice colonized by the Romans, whence we read of Arretini 
Yeteres, Fidenates, Julienses. -It was particularly celebrat- 
ed for its pottery, which was of red ware. 

22. Gorton a, one of the 12 cities, lay K. W. of the 
Lacus Trasimenus, and was one of the most ancient cities in 
Italy. It is said to have been originally called Corythus, 
from its reputed founder Corythus, who is represented as 
the father of Dardanus. It was colonized by the Romans, 
but under their dominion sunk into insignificance. It still 
bears its ancient name. The remains of the Pelasgic walls of 
this city are some of the most remarkable in all Italy : there 
is one fragment 120 feet in length, composed of blocks of 
enormous magnitude. 

23. Perusia, now Perugia^ in the E., between the lake 
Trasimenus and the Tiber, one of the 12 confederated cities, 
was situated on a hill, and was strongly fortified by nature 
and by art. As a Roman colony it is memorable in the 
civil wars as the place in which L. Antonius, the brother of 
the triumvir, took refuge, when he was no longer able to 
oppose Octavianus in the field, and where he was kept 
closely blockaded by Octav. from the end of b. c. 41 to the 
spring of 40. Famine compelled it to surrender ; but one 
of its citizens having set fire to his own house, the flames 
spread, and the whole city was burnt to the ground. It 
was rebuilt and colonized anew by Augustus, from whom it 
received the surname of Augusta. In the later time of the 
empire it was the most important city in all Etruria, and 
long resisted the Goths. 

24. Clusium now Chius% one of the most powerful of 
the confederate cities, was situated on an eminence above 
the river Clanis, and S. W. of the Lacus Clusinus, now the 
Lago di Chiusi. It was more anciently called Gamers or 
Camars, whence we may conclude that it was founded by 
the Umbrian race of the Gamertes. It was the royal resi- 
dence of Porsena, and in its neighborhood was the celebrated 
sepulchre of this king in the form of a labyrinth, of which 
such marvellous accounts have come down to us. Its siege 
by the Gauls, b. c. 391, led to the capture of Rome itself by 
those invaders. 

25. Volsinii, or Yulsinii, now Bolsena^ but called 

was Cortona, and what is the nature of its ruins ? 23. Where was Perusia, and 
Low noted ? 24. Where was Clusium, and noted as the capital of whom ? How 
noted in connection with, the capture of Eome by' the Gauls 1 25. Where was 



ITALIA. 117 

Velsina or Velsuna by the Etruscans, one of the most 
ancient and most powerful of the 12 confederated cities, was 
situated on a lofty hill on the N". E. extremity of the lake 
called after it Lacus Yolsiniensis, now Lago di Bolsena. It 
was the birthplace of Sejanus, the favorite of Tiberius. 

26. Falerii or Falerium, the chief town of the 
Falisci^ was situated on a steep and lofty height near 
Mount Soracte. It became one of the 12 Etruscan cities. 
After a long struggle with Home the Faliscans yielded to 
Camillus, b. c 394. They revolted several times, but were 
finally subdued. At the close, however, of the 1st Punic 
war they once more revolted, and the Romans now de- 
stroyed Falerii and compelled the Faliscans to build a new 
city in the plain. 

27. Yeii, one of the most ancient and jDowerful cities 
of Etruria, was situated on the river Cremera, about 12 
miles from Rome. It was one of the 12 confederated cities, 
and apparently the largest of all, and the most formidable 
and dangerous neighbor of Rome. It was taken by the 
dictator Camillus, after a siege of 10 years. So well built 
and spacious was Yeii, that the Remans were anxious, after 
the destruction of their own city by the Gauls, in b. c. 390, 
to remove to Yeii, and are said to have been prevented 
from carrying their purpose into effect, only by the elo- 
quence of Camillus. From this time Yeii was abandoned ; 
but it was subsequently colonized afresh by Augustus, 
and made a Roman municipium. In the reign of Hadrian 
it had again sunk into decay, and from this time Yeii disap- 
pears entirely from history : even its sitev/as long in dispute; 
but it is now settled beyond a doubt, that it stood in the neigh- 
borhood of the hamlet of Isola Farnese, where several 
remains of the ancient city have been discovered. 

Several islands lying off the coast of Etruria might be 
noticed here, but as we prefer to consider the Italian islands 
all together, we proceed to the division of Italy next iii 
order, v/hich is 

B.— Umbria. 

1. Umbria derived its name from its inhabitants, 
whom the Greeks called 'O/x^ptKot, (Umbrici,) but who 
were known in Italy as the Umbri, (sing. Umber,) and who 

Volsinii, and noted as the birthplace of whom? 26. Where was Falerii — whose 
chief town— taken hy whom ? 27. Where was Veii, and how far from Eome ? 
1. What is the origin of the name of Umbria ? 2. What was the position of 



118 AITCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

were one of the most ancient peoples of Italy, connected 
with the Opicans, Sabines, and those other tribes whose 
languages were akin to the Greek. 

2. The Umbri were at a very early period the most 
powerful people in Central Italy, and extended across the 
peninsula from the Adriatic to the Mare Tyrrhenum. 
Thus they inhabited not only the territory afterwards 
named after them, but also the southern portion of what 
was subsequently Etruria, as well as other parts of Central 
Italy. We are expressly told that Crotona, Perusia, Clu- 
sium and other Etruscan cities were built by the XJmbrians. 

3. At a later period they were deprived of a great part 
of their possessions by the Etruscans, and after that of an- 
other portion by the Senones, a Galhc tribe : they were 
subdued by the Romans 307 b. c. 

4. Under Augustus Umbria formed the sixth Regio of 
Italy, and as such was bounded N. by Gallia Cisalpina, from 
which it was separated by the river Rubico : E. by the 
Adriatic : S. by Picenum, from which it was separated by 
the river Aesis, and by the land of the Sabines, from which 
it was separated by the river N'ar ; and W. by Etruria, 
from which it was separated by the Tiber. 

5. The Apennines ran through the "W. j^art of the coun- 
try, but it contained many fertile plains on the coast. 

CITIES IN" UMBEIA. 

6. Ariminum, now Itimmi^ the first town which, 
after leaving Cisalpine Gaul, a person arrived at in the N. 
E. of Italia proper, was situated on the coast, at the mouth 
of the little river Ariminus, now the Marecchia. It was 
originally inhabited by Umbrians and Pelasgians, was after- 
wards in the possession of the Senones, and was colonized 
by the Romans in b. c. 268, from which time it appears as 
a flourishing place. 

1. Sena Gallica, now Senigaglia^ sometimes called 
Senogallia, was surnamed Gallica to distinguish it from 
Sena, now Siena, in Etruria, and was situated at the mouth 
of the small river Misus. It was founded by Senones, and 
was made a colony by the Romans after the conquest of the 
Senones, b. c. 283. In the civil war it espoused the Marian 
party, and was taken and sacked by Pompey. 

the U. among the Itahan peoples ? 3. By whom "vvere they deprived of a great 
part of their possessions, and when subdued by the Romans ? 4. How was Umbria 
bounded under the empire ? 5. What was the nature of the country ? 6. Where 
was Ariminum, originally inhabited by whom? 7. Where was Sena Gallica? 



ITALIA. 119 

8. Sarsina, still bearing its ancient name, was on the 
river Sapis, now Savio, S. W. of Ariminum, and subse- 
quently a Roman municipium. It is celebrated as the 
birthplace of the comic poet Plautus. 

9. Urbinum Metaurense, so named from its being 
seated on the Metaurus, answers to JJrhania on the right 
bank of that river, and not far from its source. Another 
Urbiimm is better known as Urbino^ capital of a duchy of 
the same name. It was distinguished from the former by 
the epithet ofHortense. Here Yalens, general of Yitel- 
lius, was put to death. 

10. Forum Sempronii, a municipium, answering to 
Fossomhroiie^ was near the sea, and on the left bank of the 
Metaurus. ISTear this place, and on the same bank of the 
river, the battle between Asdrubal and the Roman generals 
must have taken place. 

11. Sentinum, now Sentina^ near the shore of the 
Aesis and not far from the Apennines, is celebrated for the 
battle fought in its vicinity between the Romans and the 
allied Gauls and Samnites, b. c. 296, in which the consul P. 
Decius Mus so nobly devoted himself for his country. 

12. Iguvium, now Guhhio^ was an important town, on 
the S. slope of the Apennines. On a mountain in the 
neighborhood of this town was a celebrated temple of Ju- 
piter, in the ruins of which were discovered, somewhat 
more than four centuries ago, seven brazen tables, covered 
with Umbrian inscriptions, and which are still preserved at 
Gubbio. These tables, frequently called the Eugubian 
Tables, contain more than 1,000 IJmbrian words, and are 
of great importance for a knowledge of the ancient lan- 
guages of Italy. 

13. Mevania, now JBevagna^ in the interior, on the 
river Tinea, in a very fertile country, was celebrated for its 
breed of beautiful white oxen. According to some ac- 
counts Propertius was a native of this place. 

14. Spoletium or Spoletum, now Spoleto^ on the 
Yia Flaminia, was colonized by the Romans b. c. 242. It 
suffered severely in the civil wars between SyUa and 
Marius. 

15. Tuder, now TocU^ was situated on a hill near 

8. W^li®!"® 'W'as Sarsina, and the birthplace of whom ? 9. Where were Urbinum 
Metaurense, and Urbinum Hortense, the latter noted for what ? 10, Where waa 
Forum Sempronii ? 11. Where was Sentinum, and noted for what ? 12. What 
and where was Iguvium, and for what celebrated ? 13. Mevania was where, 
noted for what— whose birthplace ? 14. Spoletium was where, when colonized ? 



120 ANCIENT GKOGKAPHT. 

the Tiber, and was made a Roman colony. There are 
still remains of the polygonal walls of the ancient town. 

16. Ameria, novj- Amelia, a very ancient town, and 
a municipium, the birthplace of Sex. Roscius defended 
by Cicero, was situate near the Tiber, in a district rich in 
vines. 

17. Interamna, now Terni, an ancient municipimn, 
was situated on the Nar, and surrounded by a canal flow- 
ing into this river, whence its name, and whence also its 
inhabitants were called Interamnates ISTartes. It was the 
birthjjlace of the historian Tacitus, as well as of the empe- 
ror of the same name. 

18. N'arnia, nowiVarm, situated on a lofty hill, on the 
S. bank of the river ISTar, originally called ISTequinum, 
was made a Roman colony b. c. 299, when its name was 
changed into iNTarnia, after the river. This town was strongly 
fortified by nature, being accessible only on the E. and W. 
sides. On the W. side it could be approached only by a 
very lofty bridge which Augustus built over the river. 

C. — ^Picenum. 

1. Picenum, in Central Italy, was a narrow strip of 
land along the W. coast of the Adriatic, and was bounded 
on the ]Sr. by XJmbria, from which it was separated by the 
river Aesis, on the W. by XJmbria and the territory of the 
Sabines, and on the S. by the territory of the Sabini and 
Yestini. It formed the fifth region in the division of Italy 
made by Augustus. 

2. The name of the country was doubtless derived from 
that of the Sabine immigrants, called Picentes, who 
settled it, and of whose own name a variety of fanciful 
etymologies are given, which it is not necessary to mention. 
The Picentes were, as just stated, Sabine immigrants ; but 
the population of the country appears to have been of 
a mixed nature. In 269 b. c. the consul Sempronius So- 
phus compelled the Picentes to submit to the Roman su- 
premacy. 

3. The country was traversed by a number of hills of 
moderate height, eastern off-shoots of the Apennines, and 

15. Where Tvas Tuder? 16. Where was Ameria, and whose birthplace? 17. 
What and where was Interamna, and whose birthplace? 18. Where was Narnia, 
what remarkable about its name, how situated ? 

1. What was Picenum, where, how bounded, forming what ? 2. What is the 
origin of its name? 3. What was the character of the country, and Avhat its pro- 



ITALIA. 121 

was drained by several small rivers flowing into the Adri- 
atic through the valleys between these hills. The country 
was upon the whole fertile, and was especially celebrated 
for its apples ; but the chief employment of the inhabitants 
was the feeding of cattle and swine. Among its cities the 
most important was Ancona, 

CITIES IN" PICENUM. 

4. Ancona, still retaining its name, was on the Adri- 
atic ; and because it lay in a bend of the coast between two 
promontories, it was called 'AyKwv, " an elbow." It was 
built by the Syracusans, who settled there about b. c. 392, 
discontented with the rule of the elder Dionysius ; and un- 
der the Romans, who made it a colony, it became one of 
the most important seaports of the Adriatic. It possessed 
an excellent harbor, completed by Trajan, and it carried on 
an active trade with the opposite coast of Illyricum. The 
town was celebrated for its temple of Venus and its purple 
dye: the surrounding country produced good wine and 
wheat. 

5. Cupra, called Maritima, to distinguish it from 
Cupra Montana not far from it, in the mountains, was 
situated on the*Adriatic, at the mouth of a small river now 
called the Monecchia. It had an ancient temple of Juno, 
founded by the Pelasgians and restored by Hadrian. 

6. Auximum, S. or S. W. of Ancona, was an impor- 
tant town, and a Roman colony. 

7. Asciilum Picenum, so named to distinguish it 
from Asculum Apulum, was in the interior, and is now 
Ascoli. It was a Roman colony, and considered the chief 
city of the province. It is described by Strabo, who calls 
it "KcrnXov TO IIikt^voi/, as a place of great strength, sur- 
rounded by walls and inaccessible heights. It was the first 
city to declare war against the Romans when the Social 
War broke out, and its example was followed by the whole 
of Picenum. Asculum sustained, in the course of that war, 
a long and memorable siege against Pompey, who finally, 
however, compelled the place to surrender, and caused 
several of the chiefs of the rebels to be beheaded. It 
might be owing to this latter circumstance that this town 

ductions V 4. Where was Ancona, and why eo called ? By whom was it built ? 
What did it hecome under the Eomans ? It possessed what, and was celehrated 
for what ? 5, Where was Cupra Maritima, why so called, possessing what, founded 
by whom, and restored by whom? 6. Where waa Auximum ? 7. Where was As- 
6 



122 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

offered no resistance to Caesar in his irruption into 
Italy. 

8. We deem it sufficient merely to name the remaining 
towns of the Picentes : — 1. ISTumana, now ^^ma^ia. 2. 
Potentia. 3. Firmum, now _Z^rmo. 4. Truentum, 
or Castellum Truentinum, now Givitella di Tronto. 
5. Cingiilum, now Gingulo, 6. Trea or Treja. Y. 
Septempeda, now St. Severino. 8. Ricina. 9. Urbs 
Salvia, now Urhisaglia. 10. Pausulae, now Grotto 
AzzoUno, or i^evhski^s Monte JEJlpare. 11. Badis. 12. 
Tiora. 

D. — Territory of the Sabini. 

1. The Sabini were one of the most ancient and 
powerful of the indigenous peoples of Central Italy, and 
one of the few who preserved their race unmixed. Their 
name, according to Cato, was derived from the god Sabus, 
an aboriginal deity, supposed to be the same as the Medius 
Fidius of the Latins. His son Sancus was the Sabine Her- 
cules. 

2. The Sabines may be divided into three great classes 
called by the names of Sabini, SabeUi, and Samnites, respec- 
tively. The Sabini proper inhabited the country between 
the i^ar, the Anio, and the Tiber, between Latium, Etruria, 
Umbria, and Picenum. • This district was mountainous, and 
better adapted for pasturage than corn. 

3. The Sabelli were the smaller tribes who issued from 
the Sabines, including the Yestini, Marsi, Marrucini, Pe- 
ligni, Frentani, and Hirpini. The Samnites will be sepa- 
rately considered. The Romans called the whole race Sa- 
belli, comprehending the Sabines, Sabelli, and Samnites. 

4. The Sabini formed one of the elements of which the 
Roman people was composed. In the time of Romulus, a 
portion of the Sabines, after the rape of their T\4ves and 
daughters, became incorporated with the Romans, and the 
two peoples were united into one under the general name 
of Quirites, The remainder of the Sabini proper, who 
were less warhke than the Samnites and SabeUians, were 
finally subdued by M.' Curius Dentatus, b. c. 290, and re- 
ceived the Roman franchise, sine suffragio. 

culum Picenum, why so named, represented as what by Strabo, pursued what course, 
and fared how in the Social War ? 8. Name the remaining cities of Picenum. 

1. What were the Sabini, deriving their name from whom ? 2. How were the 
Babines divided, the Sabini proper inhabiting what district ; what was the nature 
of their country ? 3. Who were the Sabelli ? 4. The Sabines formed what, and 



ITALIA. 123 



CITIES OF THE SABINI. 

5. Fidenae, the site of wMcli is now occupied by 
Castel Giubileo^ was an ancient Sabine town, 40 stadia, or 
5 miles, K. E. of Rome, situated on a steep hill, between 
the Tiber and the Anio. It is said to have been founded 
by Alba Longa, and also to have been conquered and col- 
onized by Romulus ; but the population appears to have 
been partly Etruscan, and it was probably colonized by the 
Etruscan Yeii, with which city it was in close alliance. 
It frequently revolted and was frequently taken by the 
Romans. Its last revolt was in b. c. 438, and in the fol- 
lowing year it was destroyed by the Romans. Subse- 
quently the town was rebuilt ; but it is not mentioned again 
till the reign of Tiberius, when, in consequence of the fall of a 
temporary wooden theatre in the town, 20,000, or, accord- 
ing to some accounts, 50,000 persons lost their lives. 

6. Crustumerium, also founded by Alba, was a very 
ancient town, situated in the mountains near the sources 
of the AUia ; it was conquered both by Romulus and Tar- 
quinius Priscus, and is not mentioned in later times. 

V. Corniculum, in the mountains N". of Tibur, was 
celebrated as the residence of the parents of Servius 
TulHus. 

8. Cures, in the W. near the Tiber, a very ancient 
town, was celebrated as the birthplace of T. Tatius and 
Kuma Pompilius, and from it the Romans are said to have 
derived the name of Quiiites. 

9. Re ate, now Hieti, a very ancient town, said to have 
been founded by the Aborigines or Pelasgians, was situated 
on the Lacus Velinus and the Yia Salaria. It was the chief 
place of assembly for the Sabines, and was subsequently a 
praefectura or a municipium. The valley in which Reate 
was situated was so beautiful, that it received the name of 
Tempe ; and in its neighborhood is the celebrated waterfall 
which is now known under the name of the fall of Terni 
or the Cascade deUe Marmore. This waterfall owed its 
origin to a canal constructed by M.' Curius Dentatus, in 
order to carry off the superfluous waters from the lake Ve- 
linus into the^ river Nar. It falls into this river from a 
height of 140 feet. By this undertaking the Reatini gain- 
were finally subdued by whom, and when ? 5. Where was Fidenae, founded by 
whom, what its population, and what was its history in connection with the Eo- 
mans? 6. Where and what was Crustumerium? 7. Where was Corniculum, 
and noted as what ? 8. Where was Cures, and celebrated for what? 9. Where 



124 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

ed a large quantity of land, which, was called Rosea Rura. 
Reate was celebrated for its mules and asses. 

10. Other notable cities of the Sabini were Cutiliae, 
Testrina, Amiternum, and Nursia. Amiternum was 
the birthplace of the historian Sallust. 

E.— Marsi. 

1. The Marsi were a brave and warlike people of the 
Sabellian race, and dwelt in the high land surrounded by 
the mountains of the Apennines, in which the Lacus Fu- 
cinus is situated. 

2. In 308 B. c. they came into collision with Eome, but, 
having been defeated, they, along with their neighbors, the 
Peligni, Marrucini, &c., concluded a peace with Rome 
B. c. 304. Their bravery was proverbial; and, provoked 
by the insolent oppression of Eome, they subsequently be- 
came the prime movers of the celebrated war waged 
against Rome by the Socii, or Italian allies, in order to ob- 
tain the Roman franchise, and which is known by the name 
of the Marsic or Social war. 

3. Marruvium or Maruvium, on the site of the 
present Ban Benedetto^ was the chief town of the Marsi, 
who are therefore called gens Maruvia ; it was situated on 
the E. bank of the lake Fucinus, and on the road between 
Corfinium and Alba Fucentia. 

4. Alba Fucentia or Fucentis, in later times a 
Roman colony, was situated on a lofty rock near the lake 
Fucinus. It was a strong fortress, and was used by the 
Romans as a state prison. 

F.— Peligni. 

1. The Peligni, a brave and warlike people of Sabine 
origin, occupied a territory bounded S. E. by the Marsi, 
IST. by the Marrucini, S. by Samnium and the Frentani, and 
E. also by the Frentani. 

2. The chief city of the Peligni was Corfinium, not 
far from the Aternus, now the Pescara. It was strongly 
fortified, and memorable as the place which the ItaUans in 

and what was Reate ? Give some account of it and its environs. 10. WTiat other 
notable cities had the Sabini ? 

1. Where did the Marsi dwell? 2, When did they come into collision, and 
when conclude a peace with Rome ? 3. What and where was their chief town ? 
4. Where and what was Alba Fucentia, and used for what ? 

1. Where was the territory. of the Peligni? 2. What and where was their 



ITALIA. 125 

the Social war destined to be the new capital of Italy in 
place of Rome, on which account it was called Italica. 

3. Sulmo, now Sulmona^ was seven miles S. of Corfi- 
nium on the road to Capua, and situated on two small 
mountain streams, the water of which was exceedingly- 
cold : hence we find the town called by the poets " gelidus 
Sulmo." It is celebrated as the birthplace of Ovid. It 
was destroyed by Sulla, but was afterwards restored, and 
is mentioned as a Roman colony. 

,G.— Vestinl. 

1. The territory of the Vestini lay between the 
Apennines and the Adriatic sea, and was separated from 
the Marrucini by the river Aternus, (Pescara^ and from 
Picenum by the river Matrinus, now the Piomha. The 
Yestini are mentioned in connection with theMarsi, Marru- 
cini and Peligni ; but they subsequently separated from 
these peoples, and joined the Samnites in their war against 
Rome. Conquered by the Romans in b. c. 328, they ap- 
pear from this time as the allies of Rome. They joined the 
other alHesin the Marsic war, and were conquered by 
Pompeius Strabo in b. c. 89. They made a particular kind 
of cheese, which was a great favorite with the Romans. 

2. The cities of the Yestiai were Pinna, Angiilus, 
Aternum, and a few others, none of much note. 

H. — Marrucini. 

1. The Marrucini, a brave and warlike people of the 
Sabellian race, occupied a narrow shp of country along the 
right bank of the river Aternus, and bounded on the N. by 
the Yestini, on the W. by the Peligni and Marsi, on the S. 
by the Frentani, and on the E. by the Adriatic sea. Along 
with the other Sabellian tribes they fought against Rome, 
and together with them they submitted to the Romans in 
B. c. 304. 

2, Their capital city was Te ate, now Chieti^ situated 
on a steep hill on the river Aternus, and on the road from 
Aternum to Corfinium. All accounts agree in describing 
it as a large and populous town, and worthy of being rank- 

chief city, and for what destined ? 3. Where was Sulmo, and noted aa the birth- 
place of whom ? 

1. Where was the territory of the Vestini, and what is to be said of them ? 2, 
Name the cities of the Vestini. 

1. Where was the territory of the Marrucini? 2. What was their principal 
city, and where situated ? What family came from this place ? 



126 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

ed amongst the distinguished cities of Italy. The family of 
C. Asinius Pollio, a distinguished orator, poet and historian 
of the Augustan age, came originally from this place. 

I.— Roma. 

1. Roma, now Rome, the capital of Italy and of the 
world, was situated on the left bank of the river Tiber, on 
the ]Sr. "W. confines of Latium, about 15 miles from the sea. 

2. Rome is said to have been a colony from Alba Longa, 
and to have been founded by Romulus, about b. c. ^53. 
The story of its foundation must be sought in histories of 
Eome. 

3. All traditions agree that the original city comprised 
only the Mons Palatinus or Palatium and some portion 
of the ground immediately below it. It was surrounded by 
walls, and was built in a square form, whence it was called 
Roma Quadrata. 

4. There can be no doubt that where Rome now stands 
there was a city, or rather there were several cities, long 
before the time when Romulus is said to have lived and 
founded the capital of the world. The very name is foreign, 
i. e. Greek : 7} Pw/xt;, " the mighty one — the power," 
Latinized in later times, says Sickler, by the name of 
Yalentia. According to the most ancient legend, Rome 
consisted, in the earliest times, of three cities. 1. The 
city of the Arcadian Evander, on the Mons Palatinus. 
2. The city of Saturn, on the M. Capitohnus. 3. The 
city of Janus, on the Janiculum. It is certain that 
at the time when Rome is said to have been founded by 
Romulus, while the Palatine was inhabited only by Latins, 
there also existed on the neighboring hills settlements of 
Sabines and Etruscans. The Sabine town, probably called 
Quirium, and inhabited by Quirites, was situated on the 
hnis to the IST. of the Palatine, that is, the Quirinalis and 
Capitolinus, or Capitolium, on the latter of which hills Avas 
the Sabine Arx or citadel. The commonly received tradi- 
tion represents these Latin and Sabine toT^ns as afterwards 
united in the reign of Romulus, and the two peoples as 
forming one collective body, kno^vn under the name of 
"PopulusRomanus (et) Quirites." The Etruscans were set- 
tled on Mons Caelius, and extended over Mons Cispius and 

1. Where was Eome situated ? 2. Whence colonized, by whom, and when 
founded ? 3. What is the tradition concerning the original localitv of the city ? 4. 



ITALIA. 127 

Mons Oppius, whicli are part of the Esquiline. These 
Etruscans were at an early period incorporated in the 
Roman state, but were compelled to abandon their seats on 
the hills, and to take up their abode in the plains between 
the Caelius and the Esquiline, whence the Yicus Tuscus 
derived its name. 

5. Under the kings the city rapidly grew in population 
and in size. Ancus Martins added the Mons Aventinus to 
the city : he also built a fortress on the Janiculum, a hill on 
the other side of the Tiber, as a protection against the 
Etruscans, and connected it with the city by means of the 
Pons Sublicius. Tarquinius Prisons constructed the vast 
sewers, (cloacae,) by which the lower part of the city be- 
tween the Palatine and Capitol was drained, and which still 
remain without a stone displaced. He also laid out the 
Circus Maximus and the Forum, and, according to some 
traditions, commenced the erection of the Capitoline temple, 
which was finished by Tarquinius Superbus. The comple- 
tion of the city, however, was ascribed to Servius Tullius, 
who added the Mons Viminalis and Mons Esquilinus, and 
surrounded the whole city with a line of fortifications, which 
comprised all the seven hills of Rome. Hence Rome was 
called Urbs Septicolhs. These fortifications were about 7 
miles in circumference. Rome having been entirely destroy- 
ed by the Gauls in b. c. 390, it was rebuilt in great haste and 
confusion, without any attention to regularity, and with 
narrow and crooked streets. After the great fire which 
occurred in the reign of ISTero, (a. d. 64,) and destroyed two- 
thirds of Rome, the city assumed a more regular and stately 
appearance. The new streets Avere made both wide and 
straight ; the height of the houses was restricted ; and a 
certain part of each was required to be built of Gabian or 
Alban stone, which was proof against fire. Rome having 
long outgrown the walls of Servius Tullius, which were thus 
rendered useless, the emperor Aurelian surrounded the city 
with new walls, (commenced a. d. 271,) which embraced the 
city of Servius Tullius and all the suburbs which had sub- 
sequently grown up around it, such as the Mons Janicu- 
lensis on the right bank of the Tiber, and the Collis Hortu- 
lorum or Mons Pincius on the left bank of the river to the 
ISr. of the Quirinalis. These walls were about 11 miles in 
circumference. 

What is probably the real truth as regards the origin of Rome ? 5. What was the 
progress of Rome under the kings ? 



128 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY, 

For all the other notabilities of Rome, its regiones, 
vici, gates, aqueducts, bridges, campi, &c., &c., and for an 
account of its size and population, the student -will consult 
some good work on Roman Antiquities, or Smith's Classi- 
cal Dictionary, as the complete exhibition of a subject so 
exceedingly comprehensive would occupy entirely too much 
space in a manual hke the present. 

K. — Latium. 

1. The origin of the name of Latium is uncertain. 
Most of the ancients derived it from a king Latinus^ who 
was supposed ^o Ihave been a cotemporary of Aeneas; but 
there can be no doubt that the name of the people was 
transferred to this fictitious king. Other ancient critics 
connected the name with the verb latere^ either because 
Saturn had heen hidden in the country, or because Italy i& 
hidden between the Alps and the AiDennines. Neither of 
these explanations has any value. A modern writer derives 
Latium from latus^ (like Campania from campus^) and 
suj^poses it to mean the " flat land ; " but the quantity of a 
in latus is opj^osed to this etymology. 

2. The boundaries of Latium varied at different pe- 
riods : — 1. In the most ancient times it reached only from 
the river Tiber on the I^. to the river Numicus and the 
town of Ardea on the S., and from the sea-coast on the W. 
to the Alban mount on the E. 2. The territory of L. was 
subsequently extended southwards ; and long before the 
conquest of the Latins by the Romans, it stretched from the 
Tiber on the N. to the Circeium Prom, and Anxur or Tar- 
racina on the S. The name of Latium, antiquum or vetus 
was subsequently given to the country from the Tiber to 
the Circeium Promontorium. 3. The Romans still further 
extended the territories of Latium, by the conquest of the 
Hernici, Aequi, Volsci, and Aurunci, as far as the Liris on 
the S., and even beyond this river to the town Sinuessaand 
to Mt. Massicus. This new accession of territory was 
called Latium novum or adjectum. Latium, therefore, in. 
its widest signification was bounded by Etruria on the N"., 
from which it was separated by the Tiber : by Campania on 
the S., from which it was separated by the Liris : by the 
Mare Tyrrhenum on the W., and by the Sabine and the 

Samnite tribes on the E. 

t^ . 

1. What ia the origin of the name of Latium 1 2. What were the houndaries 



ITALIA. 129 

3. The greater part of this country is an extensive plain 
of volcanic origin, out of which rises an isolated range of 
mountains known by the name of Mons Albanus, of which 
the Algidus and the Tusculan hills are branches. Part of 
this plain, on the coast between Antium and Tarracina, 
which was at one time well cultivated, became a marsh in 
consequence of the rivers Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amase- 
nus finding no outlet for their waters : but the remainder 
of the country was celebrated for its fertility in antiquity. 

4. After a struggle frequently suspended and apparently 
terminated by treaties, as often renewed through a long 
series of years, the Latins were defeated by the Romans at 
the battle of Mt. Vesuvius, b. c. 340, and now became the 
subjects of Rome. 

5. Latium formed a kind of focus, m which all the dif- 
ferent races that in past centuries had been thronging into 
Italy converged. We should then expect beforehand to 
meet with a people formed by a commixture of divers 
tribes y and this expectation is confirmed both by ancient 
tradition and by the investigations of modern scholars into 
the construction of the Latin language. 

6. Tradition tells us that the Aborignes of Latium min- 
gled in early times with a j^eople calling themselves Sicu- 
lians ; that these Siculians being conquered and partly 
expelled from Italy, took refuge in the island, which was 
afterwards called Sicily from them, but was at that time 
peopled by a tribe named Sicanians ; that the conquering 
peoj^le were named Sacranians, and had themselves been 
forced down from the Sabine valleys in the neighborhood 
of Reat6 by Sabellian invaders ; and that from this mixture 
of Aborigines, Siculians, and Sacranians arose the people 
known aftei-wards by the name of Latins. 

7. The Latin language contains a very large number of 
words closely resembling the Greek ; and what is particu- 
larly to be observed, the grammatical inflection of the 
nouns and verbs, with all that may be called the framework 
of the language, closely resembles that ancient dialect of ^ 
the Hellenic called Aeolic. It must be inferred, then, that 
these languages all branched off from one stock, i. e. the 
Sanscrit, to which the Latin, in many of its forms, has a 



of Latium, and -what is meant "by L. VetuB and L. Novum ? 3. What was the 
nature of the country? 4. When were the Latins reduced to subjection by 
Rome? 6. Of what description was the population of Latium? 6. What is the 
evidence of tradition on this subject ? 7. What do the eources of the Latin Ian- 

6* 



130 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

closer resemblance than the Greek. And it may be af- 
firmed, that form under which this original language first 
appeared in Latium was Pelasgian or half-Hellenic. 

8. Though the framework and a lai^ge portion of the 
vocabulary resembles the Greek, there 'is also a large portion 
which is totally foreign to the Greek. This foreign ele- 
ment was certainly not Etruscan; for if so, we should 
find many words in the Etruscan inscriptions agreeing with 
words in Latin ; whereas, in fact, we find hardly any. But 
in the Oscan inscriptions we find words much resembling 
the Greek; and it may be inferred that the Oscan races had 
so largely blended with the Pelasgian, that the original 
Latin tongue was a mixture of the two. .Moreover, it is 
certain that the nation we call Roman was m^re than half 
Sabellian. Ti-aditional history attributes the conquest of 
Rome to a Sabine tribe. Some of her kings were Sabine : 
the name borne by her citizens was Sabine : her religion was 
Sabine : most of her institutions in war and peace were 
Sabine : and therefore it may be concluded that the lan- 
guage of the Roman people differed from that of Latium 
Proper by its Sabine elements, though this difference died 
out again as the Latin communities were gradually absorbed 
into the territory of Rome. 

9. Thus, then, to sum up, it may be assumed that in La- 
tium the original inhabitants, a mixture of Pelasgians and 
Oscans, spoke a tongue which was the parent of the later La- 
tin ; that the Sabine conquerors of Rome gradually adopted 
this Latm language, infusing into it a large vocabulary of 
their own. Other probable infusions, either earlier or later, 
left the organic structure the same, which is identified with 
the structure of the Greek and its kindred tongues. 

10. The tradition that Rome owed its origin to Aeneas 
and the Trojans must therefore be discarded as utterly un- 
founded. 

CITIES OF LATIUM. 

11. Ostia was situated at the mouth of the river Ti- 
ber, on the left bank of the left arm of the river, and was 
the harbor of Rome, from which it was distant 16 miles by 
land. It was founded by Ancus Martins, was a Roman col- 
ony, and eventually became an important and flourishing 
town. It still retains its ancient name. 

guage teach us in this connection ? 8. What other element entered into the com- 
position of the Latin language ? 9. How may the philological evidence be summed 
up? 10. What becomes thus of the Trojan origin of Eome? 11. Where and 



ITALIA. 131 

12. In the civil wars it was destroyed by Marius, but 
it was soon rebuilt with greater splendor than before. 

13. The emperor Claudius constructed a new and better 
harbor on the right arm of the Tiber, which was enlarged 
and improved by Trajan. This new harbor was called sim- 
ply Portus JRomanus or Portus Augusti^ and around it 
there sprang up a flourishing town, also called Portus ; its 
inhabitants were called Portuenses. 

14. The old town of Ostia, whose harbor had been al- 
ready partly filled up by sand, now sank into insignificance, 
and continued to exist only through its salt-works, (salinae,) 
which had been established by Ancus Martius. The ruins 
of Ostia are between 2 and 3 miles from the coast, as the 
sea has gradually receded in consequence of the accumula- 
tion of sand deposited by the Tiber. 

15. Laurentum, now Casale di Copocotta^ and not 
Paterno, one of the most ancient towns of Latium, was situ- 
ated on a height between Ostia and Ardea, not far from 
the sea, and was surrounded by a grove of laurels, from 
which the place was supposed to have derived its name. 

16. According to Virgil it was the residence of king 
Latinus, and the capital of Latium. 

17. Lavinium was 3 miles from the sea and 6 miles E. 
of Laurentum, on the Via Appia, and near the river Numi- 
cus, which divided its territory from that of Ardea. It is 
said to have been founded by Aeneas, and to have been call- 
ed Lavinium, in honor of his-wife Lavinia, the daughter of 
Latinus. 

18. It was at Lavinium that king Titus Tatius was said 
to have been murdered. 

19. Ardea, still so called, the chief town of the Rutuli, 
a little to the left of the river ifumicus, 3 miles from the sea, 
was situated on a rock surrounded by marshes, in an un- 
healthy district. It was one of the most ancient places in 
Italy, and was said to have been the capital of Turnus» 

20. Lanuvium, now I^avigna, wslh situated on a hill 
of the Alban mount, not far from the Appia Via, and sub- 
sequently a Koman municipium. Under the empire it 

what was Ostia, and founded by whom ? 12. How did it fare in the civil wars, and 
how was it rebuilt 1 13. Whither was the harbor subsequently transferred, by 
whom, and the new harbor how called ? 14. What became now of the old town of 
Ostia, and where are its ruins? 15. Where was Laurentum, and from what did it 
derive its name ? 16. It was the reputed capital of whom ? 17. Where was Lavi- 
nium, said to have been founded by whom, and named after whom? 18. What 
historical event connected with Lavinium? 19. Where was Ardea, said to have 
been whose capital ? 20. Where was Lanuvium, and whose birthplace ? 21. 



132 AITCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

obtained some importance, as the birthplace of Antoninus 
Pius. 

21. Aricia, now Ariccia or JRiccia^ was at the foot of 
the Albanus Mons, on the Appian Way, 16 miles from 
Rome. In its neighborhood was the celebrated grove and 
temple of Diana Ariciiia, on the borders of the Lacus N'e- 
morensis, now Nemi. Diana was worshipped here with bar- 
barous customs : her priest, called rex nemorensis^ was al- 
ways a run-away slave, who obtained his office by killing 
his predecessor in single combat. The priest was obliged 
to fight with any slave who succeeded in breaking off a 
branch of a certain tree in the sacred grove. 

22. Alba Longa, now Alhcmi^ the most ancient town in 
Latium, on the Mons Albanus, is said to have been built by 
Ascanius, and to have founded Rome. 

23. It was called Longa^ from its stretching in a long 
line down the Alban Mount towards the Alban Lake. It 
was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, and was never rebuilt : 
its inhabitants were removed to Rome. 

24. Tu senium, near the mod. Frascati^ was situated 
about 10 miles S. E. of Rome, on a lofty summit of the 
mountains which are called after the town Tusculani Mon- 
tes, and which are a continuation of Mons Albanus. It 
was one of the most strongly fortified places in all Italy, 
both by nature and by art. It is said to have been founded 
by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses ; and it was always one of 
the most important of the Latin towns. 

25. Its proximity to Rome, its salubrity, and the beauty 
of its situation made it the favorite residence of the Roman 
nobles during the summer. Cicero, among others, had a 
favorite villa at this place, and here, probably, he wrote that 
charming work, "Tusculanae Disputationes," or "Tusculan 
Disputations." 

26. Mons Algidus was a range of mountains extend- 
ing S. from Praeneste to Mons Albanus, cold, but covered 
with wood, and containing good pasturage. 

27. Gabii, [ne^iv Castiglione^w..^) on the Lacus Gabinus, 
(Lago di Gavi^) between Rome and Praeneste, was in early 
times one of the most powerful Latin cities. Tradition says 
that Romulus was brought up here. Sextus Tarquinius 

Where was Aricia, and what custom prevailed here in the worship of Diana ? 22. 
Where was Alba Longa, and said to have been built bj' whom? 23. What is the 
derivation of its name, and what became of it? 24. Where was Tusculum, and 
founded by whom ? 25. How is it noted in connection with Cicero ? 26. Where 
•was Mons Algidus ? 27. Where was Gabii, what peculiarity of dress derived 



ITALIA. 133 

treacherously delivered this city into the hands of his father, 
Tarquinius Snp. The Ginctus Gahinus^ a peculiar mode 
of wearing the toga at Kome, appears to have been derived 
from this town. In its neighborhood are the immense stone 
quarries from which apart of Rome was built. 

28. Collatia, now (7asfefecc^o, near the right bank of 
the Anio, is famous as the scene of the tragic fate of 
Lucretia, the wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus. 

29. Tibur, now Tiyoli^ 16 miles N. E. of Kome, was 
situated on the slope of a hill, on the left bank of the Anio, 
which here forms a magnificent waterfall. It is said to have 
been originally built by the Siculi. Under the Romans 
Tibur continued to be a large and flourishing town, since 
the salubrity and beautiful scenery of the place led many 
of the most distinguished Roman- nobles to build here mag- 
nificent villas. Of these the most splendid was the villa of 
the emperor Hadrian, in the extensive remains of which 
many valuable specimens of ancient art have been discover- 
ed. Here also the celebrated Zenobia lived, after adorning 
the triumph of her conqueror Aurelian. Horace also had 
a country house in the neighborhood of Tibur, which he 
preferred to all his other residences. The deity chiefly 
worshipped at Tibur was Hercules ; and in the neighbor- 
hood was the grove and temple of the Sibyl Albunea, whose 
oracles were consulted from the most ancient times. 

30. Pr aen e st e , now Palestrina, was situated on a steep 
and lofty hill, about 20 miles S. E. of Rome, with which it 
was connected by the Via Praenestina. It was probably a 
Pelasgic city, but it claimed Greek origin, and was said to 
have been founded by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. It 
was here that the younger Marius took refuge, and was for 
a considerable time besieged by Sulla's troops. Praeneste 
possessed a very celebrated and ancient temple of Fortuna, 
with an oracle, which is often mentioned under the name of 
" Praenestinae Sortes." It also had a temple of Juno. It 
was a favorite summer resort of the wealthy Romans, 
because of the loftiness and salubrity of its situation. 

L. — Hernici. 
1. The Hernici belonged to the Sabine race, and are 

from it its name, what historical connection with Eome, and what was in its 
neighborhood ? 28. Where was Collatia, and for what noted ? 29. Where was 
Tibur, by whom fovinded, and for what noted ? 30. Where was Praeneste, and 
for what noted ? 



134: ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

said to liave derived their name from the Marsic (Sabine) 
word herna " rock." According to this etymology their 
name would signify " mountaineers." They inhabited the 
mountains of the Apennines between the Lacus Fucinus»and 
the river Trerus, now Sacco^ and were bounded on the IST. 
by the Marsi and Aequi, and on the S. by the Yolsci. They 
were a brave and warlike people, but were, after a pro- 
tracted struggle, finally subdued, like all the neighboring 
tribes, by the Romans, b. c. 306. 

2. The chief town of the Hernici was Anagnia, now 
Anagni, situated in a very beautiful and fertile country on 
a hill, at the foot of which the Via Lavicana and Via Prae- 
nestina united. In the neighborhood Cicero had a beauti- 
ful estate. 

M.— Volsci. 

1. The Volsci dwelt on both sides of the Liris, and 
extended down the Mare Tyrrhenum. They were from an 
early period engaged in almost unceasing hostilities with 
the Romans, and were not completely subdued by the latter 
till B. c. 838, from which time they disappear from history. 
The territory occupied by them was a part of Latium. 

2. Velitrae, one of the principal cities of the Volsci, 
was conquered by the Romans, and colonized at an early 
period, but frequently revolted from Rome. It is chiefly 
celebrated as the birthplace of the emperor Augustus. 

3. Corioli, the capital of the Volsci. From the capture 
of this town in b. c. 493, C. Marcius obtained the surname 
of Coriolanus. 

4. Antium was a very ancient town of Latium on a 
rocky promontory running out some distance into the 
Mare Tyrrhenum. It was founded by Tyrrhenians and 
Pelasgians, and in early and even later times was noted for 
piracy. Although united by Tarquinius Superbus to the 
Latin league, it generally sided with the Volscians against 
Rome, whence we here reckon it among the Volscian cities. 

5. It was taken by the Romans in b. c. 468, and a 
colony was sent thither ; but it revolted, was taken a second 
time by the Romans in e. c. 338, was deprived of all its 

1. What is the derivation and meaningof the name of the Hernici, and where 
did they dwell? 2. What was their chief town, how situated? 

1. Where did the Volsci dwell ? What were their relations to Rome ? 2. What 
was Velitrae, how connected with Rome, chiefly celebrated for what? 3. Corioli 
noted for what? 4. What and where was Antium, founded by whom, noted for 
what, Bided with whom ? 6. When was it taken by Rome, and what followed its 



ITALIA. 135 

ships, the beaks (rostra) of which served to ornament the 
platforms of the speakers in the Roman forum, was forbid- 
den to have any ships in futm-e, and received another Koman 
colony. 

6. But Antium gradually recovered its former impor- 
tance, was allowed in course of time again to be used as a 
seaport, and in the latter times of the republic a-nd under 
the empire became a favorite residence of many of the 
Roman nobles and emperors. 

. 7. The emperor Nero was born here, and in the remains 
of his palace the famous Apollo Belvidere was found. It 
was evidently a magnificent city, possessing many other 
works of art. It possessed a celebrated temple of Fortune, 
of Aesculapius, and at the port of Ceno, a little to the E. 
of Antium, a temple of Neptune, on which account the 
place is now called Nettuno. 

8. Circeii, (on the site of the present San Felice, on 
Monte Circello,) on the Circeium promontorium, founded 
by Tarquinius Superbus, never became a place of importance, 
in consequence Of its proximity to the unhealthy Pontine 
marshes. The oysters caught off Circeii were celebrated. 
Some writers suppose Circe to have resided on this prom- 
ontory, and that hence it derived its name. 

9. Tres Tabernae was a station on the Yia Appia, 
between Aricia and Forum Appii. It is mentioned in the 
account of St. Paul's journey to Rome. 

10. Forum Appii, near San Do7iato^ was on the Yia 
Appia, in the midst of the Pomptine marshes, 43 miles S. 
E. of Rome, founded by the censor Apyjius Claudius, when 
he made the great road that bears his name. Here the 
Christians from Rome met the apostle Paul when he was 
approaching the city, (x4LCts xxviii. 15.) 

11. Tarracina, more anciently called Anxur, now Ter- 
7'aci7ia,was situated 58 miles S. E. of Rome, on the Yia Ap- 
pia and upon the coast, with a strongly-fortified citadel 
upon a high hill, on which stood the temple of Jupiter 
Anxurus. 

12. It was probably a Pelasgian town originally ; but it 
afterwards belonged to the Yolsci, by whom it was called 
Anxur. It was conquered by the Romans who gave it the 

capture? 6. What did it afterwards become? 7. Whose birthplace "waa it, and 
what works of art did it possess? 8. Where was Circeii, famous for what, sup- 
posed to be named after whom ? 9. What and where was Tres Tabernae, and 
how noted ? 10. Where was Forum Appii, how noted in Scripture ? 11. Where 
was Tarracina, having what other name ? 12. What is it supposed to have been 



186 Ancient geogeaphy. 

name of Tarracina, and it was made a Roman colony b. c. 
329. 

13. Three miles W. of the town stood the Grove of 
Feronia, with a temple of this goddess. The ancient 
walls of the citadel of Tarracina are still visible on the 
slope of Montecchio. 

■ 14. Signia, now Segni^ was on the E. side of the Vol- 
scian mountains. It was celebrated for its temple of Jupiter 
TJrms, for its astringent wine, for its pears, and for a par- 
ticular kind of pavement for the floors of houses, called 
Ojuis Signinum, consisting of plaster made of tiles beaten to 
powder and tempered with mortar. 

15. ISTorba, now JSTorma^ was a strongly-fortified town 
on the slope of the Yolscian mountains. It espoused the 
cause of Marius in the civil war, and was destroyed by fire 
by its own inhabitants, when it was taken by one of Sulla's 
generals. 

16. Setia, in the E. of the Pomptine marshes, was 
taken from the Volsci by the Romans and colonized. It 
was here that the Romans kept the Carthaginian hostages. 
It was celebrated for the excellent wine grown in the 
neighborhood, which was reckoned in the time of Augustus 
the finest wine in Italy. 

17. Arpinum, now ^rpz^o, was situated on the small 
river Fibrenus, at its junction with the Liris. It belonged 
originally to the Volsci, and afterwards to the Samnites, 
from whom the Romans wrested it. It was the birthplace 
of Marius and of Cicero, the latter of whom was born in his 
father's villa, situated on a small island formed by the river 
Fibrenus. Cicero's brother Quintus had an estate S. of 
Arpinum, called Arcanum. 

18. Aquinum, now Aquino^ E. of the river Melpis, was 
the birthplace of Juvenal. It was celebrated for its purple 
dye. 

19. Amyclae, E. of Tarracina, on the Sinus Amy- 
clanus, to which it gave name, was, according to tradition, 
an Achaean colony from Laconia. 

20. In the time of Augustus the town had disappeared: 
the inhabitants were said to have deserted it on account of 



originally, and how did it fare in after times ? 13. What was near it, and what re- 
mains of it? 14. Where was Signia, and celebrated for what? 15. Where waa 
Norba, and what became of it ? 16. Where was Setia, and noted for what ? 17. 
Where was Arpinum, and whose birthplace was it ? 18. Where was Aquinum, 
and noted as whose birthplace, and famous for what ? 19. Where and what was 
Amyclae ? 20. What was its condition in the time of Augustus, and what was re- 



ITALIA. 13T 

its being infested by serpents, whence Yirgil (Aen. x. 564) 
S23eaks of tacitae Amyclae^ thougli some commentators sup- 
pose that he transfers to this town the epithet belonging to 
Amyclae of Laconia, which " perished . through silence." 
ISTear Amyclae was the Spelunca, {Sperlonga^) or natural 
grotto, a favorite retreat of the emperor Tiberius. 

21. Caieta, now Gaeta^ on the borders of Campania, 
40 stadia or 5 miles S. of Formiae, was situated on a prom- 
ontory of the same name, and on a bay called after it 
Sinus Caietanus. It possessed an excellent harbor, and was 
said to have derived its name from Caieta, the nurse of 
Aeneas, who, according to some traditions, was buried at 
this place. 

22. Formiae, the ruins of which are near the present 
3fola di Gaeta^ was on the Yia Appia, in the innermost 
corner of the beautiful Sinus Caietanus, now the Gulf of 
Gaeta. It was a very ancient town, founded by the Pelas- 
gic Tyrrhenians ; and it appears to have been one of the 
headquarters of the Tyrrhenian pirates, whence later poets 
supposed the city of Lamus, inhabited by the Laestrygones, 
of which Homer speaks, (Od. x. 81,) to be the same as 
Formiae. 

23. The beauty of the surrounding country induced 
many of the Roman nobles to build villas at this place : of 
these the best known is the Formianum of Cicero, in the 
neighborhood of which he was killed. The remains of 
Cicero's villa are still to be seen at the Villa Marsana 
near Gastiglione, The hills of Formiae produced good 
wine. 

24. Minturnae, now Trajetta^ was an important town, 
situated on the Yia Appia, and on both banks of the Liris, 
and near the mouth of this river. 

25. In its neighborhood was a grove sacred to the 
nymph Marica, and also extensive marshes, {Paludes Min- 
turnenses^) formed by the overflowing of the river Liris, in 
which Marius was taken prisoner. 

PALIJDES POMPTINAE. 

26. This is the proper place to give some account of the 
famous marshes, which covered a large space of the Yolscian 
territory. Pomptinae or Pome«tinae Paludes, in Eng- 

markable in its fate ? 21. WTiere was Caieta, possessing what, and deriving its 
name from what? 22. Where was Formiae, founded by whom, headquarters of 
whom? 23. For what was it noted in later times? 24. Where was Minturnae? 



138 ANCIENT GEOaKAPHT. 

lisli, Pontine Marshes, is the name applied to a low marshy- 
plain on the coast of Latium between Circeii and Tarracina, 
said to have been so called after an ancient town, Pontia, 
which disappeared at an early period. The plain is about 
24 miles long, and from 8 to 10 miles in breadth. The 
marshes are formed chiefly by the rivers Nymphaeus, 
Ufens and Amasenus, and some other small streams, which, 
instead of finding their way into the sea, spread over this 
plain. Hence the plain is turned into a vast number of 
marshes, the miasmas arising from which are exceedingly 
unhealthy in the summer. At an early period, however, 
they appear not to have existed at all, or at any rate to have 
been confined to a narrow district. We are told that 
originally there were twenty-three towns situated in this 
plain ; and in b. c. 432 the Pomptinus Ager is mentioned as 
yielding a large quantity of corn. Even as late as 312 
B. c. the plain must still have been free from the marshes, 
since the censor Appius Claudius conducted the celebrated 
Yia Appia in that year through the plain, which must then 
have been sufiiciently strong to bear the weight of this 
road. In the course of a century and a half after this, 
the marshes had spread to a great extent ; and accordingly 
attempts were made to drain them by the consul Cethegus 
in 160, by Julius Caesar and by Augustus. It is usually 
said that Augustus caused a navigable canal to be dug 
alongside of the Yia Appia from Forum Appii to the grove 
of Feronia, in order to carry off a portion of the waters of 
the marshes ; but this canal must have been dug before the 
time of Augustus, since Horace embarked upon it, on his 
celebrated journey from Rome to Brundisium in 37 b. c, at 
which time Octavianus, as he was then called, could not 
have undertaken any of his public works. Subsequently 
the marshes again spread over the whole plain, and the Via 
Appia entirely disappeared ; and it was not until the pontifi- 
cate of Pius VI. that any serious attempt was made to 
drain them. The works were commenced in 1778, and the 
greater part of the marshes was drained ; but the plain is 
still unhealthy in the great heats of summer. 

N. — Campania. 

1. The name of Campania is probably derived from 

25. What was in its neigliborhood, and how Ib it noted in history? 26. Give an 
account of the Pontine Marshes. 

1. The name of Campania derived from what, and the country how bounded ? 



ITALIA. 139 

Campus " a plain." This division of Italy was bounded 
on the N. W. by Latium ; N. and E. by Samnium ; S. E. by 
Lucania ; and S. and S. W. by the Mare Tyrrhenum. Its 
present name is Terra di Lavoro. 

2. Before Latium had been extended beyond the Liris, 
that river formed the natural boundary of Campania to 
the jN^. ; but after this change in the limits of the two pro- 
vinces, the Massic hiils, 10 miles in length and 3 in breadth, 
were considered as the boundary by which they were sepa- 
rated. To the E. Campania was divided from Samnium by 
a branch of the Apennines, called Mons Ti^ta, and from Lu- 
cania at a later time by the river Silarus, now Sele. 

3. The country along the coast from the Liris to the 
promontory of Minerva is a plain inclosed by the Apennines 
which sweep around it in the form of a semicircle. Cam- 
pania is a volcanic country, to which circumstance it was 
mainly indebted for its extraordinary fertility, for which it 
was celebrated in antiquity above all other lands. It ]3ro- 
duced corn, wine, oil, and every kind of fruit in the greatest 
abundance, and in many parts crops could be gathered 
three times m the year. The fertility of the soil, the beauty 
of the scenery, and the softness of the climate, the heat of 
which was tempered by the delicious breezes of the sea, 
procured for Campania the epithet Felix^ a name which 
it justly deserved. It was the favorite retreat in summer 
of the Roman nobles, whose villas studded a considerable 
part of its coast, especially in the neighborhood of Baiae. 

4. The earliest inhabitants of the country were the 
Ausones and Osci or Opici. They were subsequently con- 
quered by the Etruscans, who became the masters of almost 
all the country. In the time of the Romans it was inhabit- 
ed by three distinct peoples, besides the Greek popula- 
tion of Cumae : — 1. the Campani properly so called, along 
the coast from Sinuessa to Paestum : they were the ruling 
race ; 2. the Sidicini, an Ausonian people, in the JST. W. ; 3. 
the Picentini in the S. E. 

5. The name of Campania is derived by some from the 
Greek word rj KajXTn^^ " a bending or winding^^'' the name 
having reference to the many inequalities of the coast, 
and the bending of the country around the territory of 



2. By what was it separated from Latium, and by what from Lucania, and from 
Samnium? 3. What was the general character of this country, and what its 
productions ? 4. Who were the original inhabitants of the country, and who 
occupied it in the time of the Romans? 5. What other derivation is given of the 



140 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

the Samnites : thus the name -would denote " the land of 
hays^'' or " the winding la7idP 

6. The chief river of Campania is the Yulturnus, now 
the Yolturno^ rising in the Aj^ennines in Samnium, and fall- 
ing into the Mare Tyrrhenum. Its prmcipal affluents are 
the Calor, Galore^ Tamarus, Tamaro^ and Sabatus, Sa- 
hato. Minor rivers were the Liris, now Garigliano^ the 
Savo, Saone, the Clanius or Liternus, now the Lagno^ 
which flows through a marsh N". of Liternum, called Literna 
Palus : the Sebethus, Jl/a<^c?a^ew«, flowing round Vesu- 
vius, and falling into the Sinus Puteolanus at the E. side of 
NeapoHs: the Sam us, Sarna^ and the Silarus, the water 
of which is said to have petrified plants. 

V. Besides the Apennines on the eastern border of the 
country, the principal mountains of Campania were Vesu- 
vius Mons, Massicus Mons, and a range of hills called Pausi- 
lypus, and Tifeta. 

8. Vesuvius, also called Vesevus, Vesbius, or 
Vesvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain, rises out of 
the plain S. E. of in eapohs. There are no records of any 
eruption of Vesuvius before the Christian era, but the an- 
cient writers were aware of its volcanic nature from the 
igneous apj^earance of the rocks. The slopes of the moun- 
tain were extremely fertile, but the top was a rough and 
sterile plain, on which Spartacus and his gladiators were be- 
sieged by a Roman army. In a. d. 63, the volcano gave 
the first symptoms of agitation in an earthquake, which 
occasioned considerable damage to several towns in its vicin- 
ity ; and on the 24th of August, a. d. 79, occurred the first 
great eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities 
of Stabiae, Herculaneum, and Pompeii. It was in this erup- 
tion that the elder Pliny lost his life. There have been nu- 
merous eruptions since that time, which have greatly al- 
tered the shape of the mountain. Its present height is 3,200 
feet. 

9. Massicus Mons was in the IST. W. near the fron- 
tiers of Latium, celebrated for its excellent wine, the pro- 
duce of the vineyards on the southern slope of the moun- 
tain. The celebrated Falernian wine came from the eastern 
side of this mountain, or, more particularly, from the Fa^ 
lernus Ager, a district extending from the Massic hills to 

name of Campania ? 6. Wliat is the chief river, and -what the minor riTers of the 
country? 7. What -were the principal mountains of Campania? 8. Where is 
Vesuvius ? Give a succinct account of this mountain ? 9. Wliere was the Mas- 



ITALIA. 141 

the river Vulturniis. This district produced some of the 
finest wine in Italy, which was reckoned only second to the 
wine of Setia. Its choicest variety was called Faustianum. 

10. The Greek term Pausilypus or Pausilypum, 
i. q. nai;crtA,t)7roi/, (fabulously derived from ';rai;co and Xvttt],) 
" ending xoain^'' was apphed to the ridge of hills which 
separates the bay of Naples jfrom that of Pozzuoli, prob- 
ably on account of its delightful situation and aspect, 
which rendered it the favorite residence of several noble 
and wealthy Romans. This hill, at a period unknown to 
us, was j)erforated by art to admit of a communication 
between Neapolis and Puteoli, not only for men and beasts 
of burden, but also for carriages. The name Pausilypum 
was transferred to the celebrated grotto, now Posilippo, 
between Naples and Puzzeoli, which was formed by this 
perforation or tunnel, which the architect Cocceius is said 
to have cut through the rock by command of Agrippa. 
At its entrance the tomb of Virgil is still shown. 

11. Mons Tif ata wasE. of Capua. The Samnites en- 
camped upon it in their war with the Campanians. In 
later times Sulla gaiued a victory here over the proconsul 
Norbanus. On this mountain was a temple of Diana and 
also one of Jupiter of some celebrity. 

CITIES IN CAMPANIA. 

12. Vulturnum, now Castel di VoUurno, at the 
mouth of the river Yulturnus, was origmally a fortress 
erected by the Romans in the 2d Punic war, in later times 
a colony. 

13. Liternum or Linternum, now Patria, was at 
the mouth of the river Clanius or Glanis, which in the 
lower part of its course takes the name of Xiternus, 
JPatria or Clanio^ and which, to the N. of the town, 
flows through a marsh called Literna Palus. It was to this 
place that the elder Scipio Africanus retired, when the 
tribunes attempted to bring him to trial, and here he is 
said to have died. 

14. Cumae, the most ancient of the Greek colonies in 
Italy, was founded by Cyme in Aeolis, in conjunction 
with Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea. Its foundation is 
placed in b. c. 1050, but this date is evidently too early. 

sicus Mons, and celebrated for wliat ? 10, Wtere -waa the Pausilypus Mons, and 
hew noted ? 11. Where was Mount Tifata ? 12. Where and what was Vulturmim 
13; Where was Liternum, and noted for what ? 14. Where was Cumae, and by 



142 Ai;rciENT geogkapht. 

It was situated on a steep hill of Mt. Gaurus, {Monte 
Gauro^ a little IST. of the promontory Misenum. 

15. It became in early times a great and flourishing 
city : its commerce was extensive : its territory included 
a great part of the rich Campanian plain : its population was 
at least 60,000, and its power is attested by its colonies in 
Italy and Sicily, — ^Puteoli, Palaepohs, afterwards ISTeapolis, 
Zancle, afterwards Messana. 

16. It maintained its independence till 417 b. c, when 
it was taken by the Campanians and most of its inhabitants 
sold as slaves. From this time Capua became the chief 
city of Campania. 

17. Cumae was celebrated as the residence of the 
earliest Sibyl, and as the place where Tarquinius Super- 
bus died. Its ruins are still to be seen between the Lago 
di Patria and Fusaro. 

18. For Misenum, see under Promontories, page 94. 

19. Baiae, on a small bay W. of IN^aples, and opposite 
Puteoh, was situated in a beautiful country, which abound- 
ed in warm mineral springs. 

20. The baths of Baiae were the most celebrated in 
Italy, and the town itself was the favorite watering place 
of the Romans, who flocked thither in crowds for health 
and pleasure: it was distinguished by hcentiousness and 
immorality. 

21. The whole country was studded with the palaces 
of the Roman nobles and emperors, which covered the 
coast from Baiae to Puteoli: many of these palaces were 
built into the sea, (Hor. Carm. II. 18. 20.) The site of 
ancient Baiae is now for the most part covered by the sea. 

22. Puteoli, now Pozzuoli^ originally named Di- 
caearchia, a celebrated seaport town, situated on a prom- 
ontory on the E. side of the Smus Puteolanus, and a 
little to the E. of Cumae, was founded by the Greeks of 
Cumae, b. c. 521, under the name of Dicaearchia. In the 
second Punic war it was fortified by the Eomans, who 
changed its name into that of Puteoli, either from its nu- 
merous wells, {puteus,) or from the stench (puteo, to stink) 
arising from the mineral springs in its neighborhood. 

whom founded, and probably when ? 15. It became what in early times, and by 
what is its power attested ? ' 16. Until when did it maintain its independence, and 
what was its subsequent fate ? 17. Cumae was celebrated for what ? 18. Where 
was Misenum? 19. Where was Baiae? 20. For what was Baiae noted? 21. 
What is the appearance of the surroundine country ? 22. Where was Puteoli, orig- 
inally how named, founded by whom ? When and why named Puteoli ? 23. Puteoli 



ITALIA. 143 

23. Puteoli was indebted for its importance to its ex- 
cellent harbor, wbicb was protected by an extensive mole 
formed from the celebrated reddish earth of the neighbor- 
ing hills. This earth, called Pozzolana, when mixed with 
chalk forms an excellent cement, which in com-se of time 
becomes as hard as stone, even in water. The mole was 
built on arches like a bridge, and 17 of the piers are still 
visible projecting above the water. To this mole Caligula 
attached a floating bridge, which extended as far as Baiae, 
a distance of two miles. Puteoli was destroyed by Alaric, 
A. D. 410, by Genseric in 455, and by Totilas in 545, but was 
on each occasion speedily rebuilt. Besides the remains 
of the mole, many ruins of the ancient town are still at 
Pozzuoli. 

24. N'eapolis, now Napoli or Naples^ on the "W". 
slope of Mt. Vesuvius and on the river Sebethus, was 
founded by the Chalcidians of Cumae, on the site of an 
ancient place called Parthenope, after the siren of that 
name. It was called Neapolis, the " Neio City^'' because 
it was regarded simply as a new quarter of the neighbor- 
ing city of Cumae. 

25. When the town is first mentioned in Roman his- 
tory, it consisted of two parts, divided from each other by 
a wall, and called respectively Palaepolis and Neapolis. 
This division probably arose after the capture of Cumae 
by the Samnites, when a large number of Cumaeans took 
refuge in the city they had founded ; whereupon the old 
quarter was called Palaepolis, and the new quarter, built to 
accommodate the new inhabitants, was named Neapolis. 
Under the Romans, who took the town from the Samnites 
in B. c. 290, permitting it to retain its Greek constitution, 
it became subsequently a municipium, finally a colony, and 
the two quarters of the city were united, and the name Pa- 
laepolis disappeared. It continued to be a prosperous and 
flourishing place till the time of the empire, and its beautiful 
scenery, and the luxurious life of its Greek population, made 
it a favorite residence with many of the Romans. In the 
reign of Titus the city was destroyed by an earthquake, but 
was rebuilt by this emperor in the Roman style. 

26. Herculaneum, Herculanium, Herculanum, 
Herculense Oppidum, Herculea IJrbs, an ancient 

was indebted to what for its importance ? 24 Where was ITeapolis, founded by 
■whom, on the site of what, and why so called? 25. When first mentioned in his- 
tory, it consisted of what, division arising from what ? 26. Where was Hercu- 



14:4 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

city near the coast, between ISTeapolis and Pompeii, was orig- 
inally founded by the Oscans, was next in the possession 
of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently w^as inhabited chiefly 
by Greeks, who appear to have settled in the place from 
other cities of Magna Graecia, and to have given it its name. 
It was destroyed with Pompeii in a. d. "79. On its site 
stands the modern JPortici^ and part of the village oi Besi- 
Old. The ancient city was accidentally discovered by the 
sinking of a well in 1720,* since which time, the excava- 
tions have been carried on at diflerent periods ; and' many 
works of art have been discovered, which are deposited in 
the royal Museum at Portici. It has been found necessary 
to fill up again the excavations which were made,, in order 
to render Portici and Resina secure, and therefore very lit- 
tle of the ancient city is to be seen. For an account of the 
manner of its destruction, vide infra, under Pompeii. 

27. Pompeii (IIo/xTrT^tot, IIojaTrata, Tiojxinfca) was situated 
on the coast, at the mouth of the river Sarnus, now the Smmoj 
but in consequence of the physical changes which the sur- 
rounding country has undergone, the ruins of the city are 
found at present about 2 miles from the sea. Pompeii was 
first in the hands of the Oscans, afterwards of the Tyrrhe- 
nians, and finally became a Roman municipium. Together 
with Herculaneum it was partly destroyed by an earthquake 
in A. D. 63, but was overwhelmed in 79, at the same time 
with Herculaneum and Stabiae, by the great eruption of 
Mount Vesuvius. 

28. It is the common belief that these cities were, on this 
occasion, buried by a shower of volcanic sand, vulgarly term- 
ed ashes, and stones. This theory has been efiectually ex- 
ploded by a French savant, M. Dufrenoy, who has devoted 
much time to the study of the causes of the destruction of 
Pompeii and Herculaneum, and the seven other towns which 
shared their fate. He thinks that, if the shower of ashes 
and stones was so dense as to change night into day, and 
to suftbcate to death a great many persons, it still had little 
eftcct in burying these cities. For, says he, if these cities 
were buried by clouds of air-suspended banks of ashes, the 
ashes would have filled nothing but open cavities, and would 
have been deposited only on the suriaces of the houses, <fcc. 

* According to some, in 1713, according to others, in 1711. 

lancum, and by -whom founded ? 27. Where was Pompeii, euccessively in whose 
possession, and when destroyed? 28. Give an account of its destruction. 29. Wliat 



ITALIA 145 

Whereas in all the excavations made at Herculancum and 
Pompeii, deep cellars which were perfectly closed on all 
sides, and whose arched ceiling is miimpaired, are com- 
pletely filled with tufa — s-o completely filled that the tufa 
forms a compact mass, and is mx)ulded on the different ob- 
jects which it envelops. A shower of ashes could never 
have produced this result, as is proved by the effect pro- 
duced by sand on dunes, where no sand enters houses 
swallowed up, unless the roof or walls give way under the 
accumulated mass of sand. Therefore it must be admitted 
that loater must have been the chief cause of the burial of 
Herculaneum and Pompeii, and nothing but turbid w^ater 
could have penetrated everywhere, even into the cellars, 
and filled them up. The layers which at the present day 
cover these cities, are formed almost exclusively of sub- 
stances which could not have been ejected by the mouth of 
the volcano ; and by the way in which they are deposited, 
it seems they were deposited there by a current of water. 
M. Dufrenoy therefore concludes that the shower of ashes 
began the destruction of the cities, and killed or put to 
flight their inhabitants ; but that the earthquakes caused by 
the incalculable violence of the eruption, overthrew the 
spurs around Vesuvius, and that the materials which formed 
these spurs, dissolved in great masses of water, buried un- 
der a huge ocean of mud these cities of antiquity. There 
is not the least trace of lava in the mass which covered 
Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

29. In consequence of this catastrophe a great part of 
the city has been preserved with its market-places, theatres, 
baths, temples, and private houses; and the excavation of it 
in modern times has thrown great light upon many points, 
of antiquity, such as the construction of Roman houses, and 
in general all subjects connected with the private life of the 
ancients. The first traces of this ancient city were discovr 
ered in 1689, rising above the ground; but it was not till 
1721 that the excavations were commenced. These have 
been continued with various interruptions down to the pre- 
sent day ; and now about half the city is exposed to view. 
It was surrounded with walls which were about 2 miles in 
circumference, surmounted at intervals by towers, and con- 
taining six gates. 

30. Stabiae, now Gastellamare di Stahia was an an- 

iniportant results arise from this catastrophe, and what discoveries have "been 
7 



146 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

cient town between Pompeii and Surrentum. It was de- 
stroyed by Sulla in the social war, but continued to exist 
as a small place down to the great eruption of Vesuvius in 
A. D. '79, when it was overwhelmed along with Hercula- 
neum and Pompeii. It was at Stabiae that the elder Pliny 
perished. 

31. Surrentum, now Sorrento^ 2^, very ancient town 
opposite Capreae, was situated on the promontory {Prom. 
Minervae) separating the Sinus Paestanus from the Sinus 
Puteolanus. It became a Roman Colony : on the hills {Sicr- 
rentini Colles) in its neighborhood was grown one of the 
best wines in Italy, which was strongly recommended to 
convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. 

32. Suessa Aurunca, or S. Auruncorum, now 
jSessa, was a town of the Aurunci, E. of the Via Appia, be- 
tween Minturnae and Teanum, on the W. slope of ,Mons 
Massicus. It was situated in a beautiful district called Ves- 
cinus Ager. It was made a Koman colony in the Samnite 
wars, but must have been afterwards colonized afresh, since 
we find it called iu inscriptions. Col. Juha Felix. It was 
the birthplace of the poet Lucilius. 

33. Teanum Sidicinum, now^ Teano, an important 
town, and capital of the Sidicini, was situated on the E". 
slope of Mons Massicus, and on the Yia Praenestina, 6 
miles W. of Cales. It was made a Roman colony by 
Augustus. In its neighborhood were some celebrated 
medicinal springs. 

34. Cales, now Calvi^was the chief town of the Caleni, 
• an Ausonian people, on the Via Latina, said to have been 

founded by Calais, son of Boreas, and therefore called 
Threicia by the poets. It was celebrated for its excellent 
wine. 

35. Venafrum, now Venafri, in the territory of the 
Sidicini, near the river Vulturnus, and on the confines of 
Latium, belonged originally to Samnium, according to 
Strabo : Pliny places it in Latium adjectum, and therefore 
in the first Regio. Hence later geographers regard it as 
belonging to Campania. It was celebrated for the excel- 
lence of its olives, and its fine olive oil. 

36. Casilinum, on the Vulturnus and on the same 

made ? 30. Where was Stabiae, and -what was its fate ? 31. Where was Surren- 
tum, and for what noted ? 32. Where was Suessa Aurunca, how situated, whose 
birthplace? 33. Where was Teanum Sidicinum? 34. Where was Cales, and for 
what noted ? 35. Where was Venafrum, originally belonging where, celebrated 
for what ? 86. Where was Casilinum, and for what celebrated ? 37. Capua, 



ITALIA. 147 

site as the modern Capua^ celebrated for its heroic defence 
against Hannibal, b. c. 216, 

37. Capua, originally called Vulturnum, was the 
chief city of Campania, after the fall of Cumae, is said to 
have derived its name from Capys, the leader of the Etrus- 
cans by whom it was taken and colonized, some say 50 
years before the foundation of Rome. Situated on the left 
bank of the Yulturnus, it soon became the most prosperous, 
wealthy, and luxurious city in the south of Italy. 

38. In B. c. 420 it was conquered by the warlike Sam- 
nites, and the population, which had always been of a 
mixed nature, now consisted of Ausonians, O scans, Etrus- 
cans and Samnites. At a later time Capua, again attacked 
by the Samnites, placed itself under the protection of Rome, 
343. It revolted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, 
216, but was taken by the Romans in 211, was fearfully 
punished, and never recovered its former prosperity. 

39. Capua was now governed by a Praefectus, who was 
sent annually to the city from Rome. It received a Roman 
colony by the lex agraria of Julius Caesar, in 59, and under 
Nero a colony of veterans was settled there. It was subse- 
quently destroyed by the barbarians who invaded Italy. 
The modern town of Capua is built about 3 miles from the 
ancient one, the site of which is indicated by the ruins of 
an amphitheatre. 

40. Atella, between Capua and N'eapolis, near the 
site of the modern Aversa^ owes its celebrity to the Atel- 
lanae Fabulae or Oscan farces, which took their name from 
this town. 

41. ISTola, still so called, was one of the most ancient 
towns in Campania, 21 Roman miles S. E. of Capua : it was 
founded by the Ausones, but afterwards fell into the hands 
of the Tyrrheni, (Etruscans,) whence some writers call it an 
Etruscan city. In b. c. 327 N'ola was sufficiently powerful 
to send 2,000 soldiers to the assistance of JSTeapolis. In 313 
the town was taken by the Romans. 

42. It remained faithful to the Romans even after the 
battle of Cannae, when the Campanian towns revolted to 
Hannibal ; and it was allowed in consequence to retain its 
own constitution as an ally of the Romans. In the Social 
war it fell into the bauds of the confederates, and when 

originally how called, was where, what its rank, named after whom? 38. What 
vicissitudes did it experience? 39. What was now its condition, and what finally 
jts fate ? 40. Where was Atella, and celebrated for what? 41. Where was JSTola, 
by whom founded ; what evidences of its power ? 42. What was its conduct and 



148 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

taken by Sulla it was burnt to the ground by the Samnite 
garrison. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was made a 
Roman colony by Vespasian. The emperor Augustus died 
at Nola. 

43. In the neighborhood of the town some of the most 
beautiful Campanian vases have been found in modern times. 
According to an ecclesiastical tradition, church bells were 
invented at ISTola, and were hence called Campanae. 

44. Abe 11 a, now Avella vecchia^ not far from ^NTola, 
was celebrated for its apples, whence Virgil (Aen. VII. 
740) calls it malifera^ and for its great hazel-nuts, nuces 
Avellanae. 

45. Nuceria, surnamed Alfaterna, now -Vocera, on 
the Sarnus and on the Via Appia, S. E. of I^ola and 9 
Roman miles from the coast, was taken by the Romans in 
the. Samnite wars, and was again taken by Hannibal after 
the battle of Cannae, when it was burnt to the ground. It 
was subsequently rebuilt, and both Augustus and Nero 
planted colonies of veterans here. Pomj)eii was used as the 
harbor of IsTuceria. 

46. Picentia, now Vicenza^ was in the S., at the head 
of the Sinus Paestanus, and between Salernum and the fron- 
tiers of Lucania. The inhabitants were compelled by the 
Romans, in consequence of their revolt to HannibaJ, to 
abandon their town and live in the neighboring villages. 

47. The name of Picentini was not confined to the in- 
habitants of Picentia, but was given to the inhabitants of 
the whole coast of the Sinus Paestanus, from the Promon- 
torium Minervae to the river Silarus. They were a portion 
of the Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted by the Ro- 
mans to this part of Campania after the conquest of Pice- 
num, B. c. 268, at which time they founded Picentia. 

48. The Sirenusae, scil. insulae, called by Virgil (Aen. 
V. 864) Sirenum Scopuli, were three small uninhabited 
and rocky islands off the coast, near the S. side of the 
Prom. Misenum, and were, according to tradition, the abode 
of the Sirens. 

O. — Samnium. 

1. Samnium, in the centre of Italy, was bounded on 

its fate under the Romans ? 43. For what is Nola noted in more recent times ? 
44. Where was Abella, and celehrated for what ? 45. WTiere was ISTuceria, and 
how noted in history ? 46. Where was Picentia, and what happened to its inhab- 
itants? 47. To whom was the name of Picentini extended? 48. Where and 
what were the Sirenusae ? 



ITALIA. 149 

the N. by the Marsi, Peligni, and Marrucini, on the W. by 
Latium and Campania, on the S. by Lucania, and on the E. 
by the Frentani and Apulia. 

2. The Samnites, Samnites, more rarely Samnitae, 
called by the Greeks ^avi/trat, were an offshoot of the 
Sabini, who emigrated from their country between the Nar, 
Tiber, and the Anio, before the foundation of Rome, and 
settled in the country afterwards called Samnium. The 
Samnites were distinguished for their bravery and love of 
freedom, and when they came into collision with Rome, 
the Romans found them the most warlike and formidable 
enemies whom they had yet encountered in Italy ; and the 
war, which commenced in 343, was continued, with few in- 
terruptions, for the space of 53 years. It was not till 290 
E. c, when all their bravest troops had fallen, and their 
country had been repeatedly ravaged in every direction by 
the Roman legions, that the Samnites sued for peace and 
submitted to the supremacy of Rome. They never, how- 
ever, lost their love of hberty ; and accordingly they not 
only joined the other Italian allies in the war against Rome 
(90), but, even after the other allies had submitted, they 
still continued in arms. The civil war between Marius and 
Sulla gave them hopes of recovering their independence ; 
but they were defeated by Sulla before the gates of Rome 
(82), the greater part of their troops fell in battle, and the 
remainder were put to death. Their towns were laid waste, 
the inhabitants sold as slaves, and their place supplied by 
Roman colonists. 

3. The greater part of Samnium is occupied by a huge 
mass of mountains, called at the present day the Matese, 
which stands out from the central line of the Apennines. 
The circumference of the Matese is between '70 and 80 
miles, and its greatest height is 6,000 feet. 

4. The two most important tribes of the Samnites were 
the Caudini and the Pentri. Besides these two chief tribes, 
we find mention of the Caraceni, who dwelt I^. of the Pentri, 
and of the Hirpini, who dwelt S. E. of the Caudini. 

CITIES OF SAMNIUM. 

5. The chief cities of the Caudini were Cauditim, 
Beneventum, Allifae, and Telesia. 

1. Ho"w was Samnium bounded? 2. What were the Samnites, and what were 
their relations to Rome ? 3. What was the nature of the country ? 4. Which 
were the most important Samnite tribes, and what other tribes were there ? 6. 



150 ANCIENT GEOaEAPHY. 

6. Caudium was on the road from Capua to Beneven- 
tum. In the neighborhood were the celebrated Furculae 
Caudinae, or Caudine ForJcs^ narrow passes in the 
mountains, where the Roman army surrendered to the 
Samnites, and was sent under the yoke, b. c. 321 : it is 
now called the valley of Arpaia. 

I. Beneventum, now Benevento^ on the Via Appia, 
at the junction of the two valleys through which the Sa- 
batus and Calor flow, was formerly called Maleventuniy on 
account, it is said, of its bad air. It was one of the most an- 
cient towns in Italy, having been founded, according to tradi- 
tion, by Diomede. It was taken by the Romans, who sent a 
colony thither ins. c. 268, and changed its name of Male- 
ventum into Beneventum. It was colonized a second time 
by Augustus, and was hence called Colonia Julia Concordia 
Augusta Felix. The modern town has several Roman 
remains, among others a triumphal arch of Trajan. 

8. Allifae or Alifae, now Allife^ on the Vulturnus, 
in a fertile country, was celebrated for the manufacture of 
its large drinking cups. 

9. Telesia, now Telese^ on the road from Allifae to 
Beneventum, was taken by Hannibal in the 2d Punic war, 
and afterwards retaken by the Romans. It was the birth- 
place of C. Pontius, hence called Telesinus, who fought 
against Sulla. 

10. The principal towns of the Pentri were Aesernia, 
Bovianum, and Sepinum, of which the first, now 
Isernia^ was made a Roman colony in the 1st Punic war. 

II. Their chief town was Bovianum, now JBoja7io ; it 
was taken by the Romans in the Samnite wars, and was 
colonized by Augustus with veterans. 

12. The Hirpini, whose name is said to come from 
the Sabine word hvfpus^ " a wolf," dwelt in the S. of Sam- 
nium, between Apulia, Lucania, and Campania. Their 
chief town was Aeculanum. 

THE PEENTANI. 

13. The Frentani, also a Samnite people, inhabited 
a fertile and well-watered country on the coast of the 

Which were the cities of the Caudini ? 6. Where was Catidium, and what noted 
place in the neighborhood? T. Where was Beneventum, and what was the origin 
of its name ? 8. Where was Allifae, and for what celebrated ? 9. Where was 
Telesia, and for what noted? 10. Name the principal towns of the Pentri. 11. 
Which was their capital city ? 12. The Hirpini dwelt where, whence is their 
name derived, and what was their chief town ? 13. Where did the Frentani 



ITALIA. 151 

Adriatic, from the river Sagriis on the N., subsequently 
as far N". as the Aternus, to the river Frento. on the S., 
from the latter of which rivers they derived their name. 
They were bounded by the Marrucini on the N., by the 
Pehgni and by Samnium on the W., and by Apulia on the 
S. They submitted to the Romans in b. c, 304, and con- 
cluded a peace with the repubhc. 

14. Larinum, now Larino^ was a town of the Fren- 
tani, (whence the inhabitants are sometimes called Fren- 
tani Larinates,) on the river Tifernus, Biferno^ and near 
the borders of Apulia, subsequently a Roman municipium : 
it possessed a considerable territory extending down to the 
Adriatic Sea. The town of Cliternia on the coast was sub- 
ject to Larinum. Some writers reckon Larinum among 
the cities of Apulia. 

^, — Ijower Itmly. 

A. — Apulia, 
Datjiha, Peucetia and Iaptgia, oe Messapia. 

1. Apulia included, in its widest signification, the whole 
of the S. E. of Italy from the river Frento to the promon- 
tory lapygium, and was bounded on the N". by the Frentani, 
on the E. by the Adriatic, on the S. by the Sinus Tarenti- 
nus, and on the W. by Samnium and Lucania, thus includ- 
ing the modern provinces of Bari, Otranto, and Capitanata 
in the kingdom of Naples. 

2. Apulia in its narrower sense was the country E. of 
Samnium on both sides of the Aufidus, (now the Ofanto,) 
the Daunia and Peucetia of the Greeks : the whole of the 
S. E. was called Calabria by the Romans. 

3. The Greeks gave the name of Daunia to the K. 
part of the country from the Frento, Fortore^ to the 
Aufidus, of Peucetia to the country from the Aufidus to 
Tarentum and Brundusium, and of lapygia or Messapia to 
the whole of the remaining S. part : though they sometimes 
included under lapygia all Apulia in its widest meaning. 

4. The I^. W. of Apulia is a plain, but the S. part is 

dwell ? Their name whence derived ? 14. What city of importance had the Fren- 
tani, and where? 

1. Apulia, in ita wider sense, included what, and was how hounded? 2. What 
was Apulia in its narrower sense ? 3. To what parts did the Greeks apply the 
names of Daunia, Peucetia, and lapygia or Messapia? 4. What is the face of the 



152 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

traversed by the E. branch of the Apennines, and has only 
a small tract of land on the coast on each side of the moun- 
tains. The country was very fertile, especially in the 
neighborhood of Tarentum, and the mountains afforded 
excellent pasturage. 

5. The population, which was of a mixed nature, were 
for the. most part of Illyrian origin, and are said to have 
settled in the country under the guidance of lapyx, Dau- 
nius, and Peucetius, three sons of an Illyrian king, Lycaon. 
Subsequently many towns were founded by Greek colonists. 
The Apulians joined the Samnites against the Romans, and 
became subject to the latter on the conquest of the Sam- 
nites. 

CITIES OF APULIA. 

6. Teanum Apulum, near JPonte JRotto, so called to 
distinguish it from T. Sidicinum, was on the river Frento, 
and on the confines of the Frentani, 18 miles from Larinum. 

v. The lake which Strabo speaks of as bemg near 
Teanum, but without mentioning its name, is called by 
Pliny LacusPontanus, now Xago di Lesina. 

8. The Diomedeae Insiilae were five small islands 
in the Adriatic sea, IST. of the promontory Garganum, 
named after Diomedes. The largest of these, called Dio- 
medea Insula or Trime t us, now 2>6??^^^^■, was the place 
where the infamous Julia, the granddaughter of Augustus, 
died. 

CITIES IN" DAUNIA. 

9. Sipontum or Sipuntum, called by the Greeks 
Si pus, now Siponto^ was an ancient town in the district 
of Daunia, on the slope of Mt. Garganus, and on the 
coast. It is said to have been founded by Diomedes, and 
was of Greek origin. 

10. The inhabitants were removed from this town by 
King Manfred in the 13th century, in consequence of' the 
unhealthy nature of the locality, and were settled in the 
neighboring toy>^n of Manfredonia, founded by this monarch. 

11. Luceria, sometimes called N"uceria,now Imcera^ 
on the borders of Samnium, S. W. of Arpi, was situated on 
a steep hill, and possessed an ancient temple of Minerva. 

country and the nature of the soil? 5, What was the origin of the population ? 
6. Where was Teanum Apulum, and why so called ? 7. What lake was near 
Teanum 1 8. What islands were off the coast, to the N. and N. E. of this lake ? 
9, Where was Sipontum, and founded hy whom? 10. What befell this town in 
later times ? 11. Where was Luceria, how situated, possessing what ? 12. What 



ITALIA. 153 

12. In the war between Rome and Samnium, it was 
first taken by the Samnites, (b. o. 321,) and next by the 
Romans, (319 ;) but having revolted to the Samnites in 
314, all the inhabitants were massacred by the Romans, and 
their place supphed by 2,500 Roman colonists In the time 
of Augustus it had greatly declined in j)rosperity; but it 
was still of sufficient importance in the 3d century to be 
the residence of the praetor of Apulia. 

13. Arpi, the ruins of which still retain the ancient 
name, was an inland town in Daunia, founded, according to 
tradition, by Diomedes, who called it "Apyos tWtov, from 
which its later names of Argyrippa or Argyripa and Arpi 
are said to have arisen, {Ille [^Diomedes] urhem Argyripam^ 
patriae cognomine gentis, Yirg. Aen. XI. 246.) 

14. Salapia, an ancient town in the district of Daunia, 
was situated S. of Sipontum and on a lake named after it. 
According to the common tradition it was founded by Dio- 
medes, though others ascribe its foundation to the Rhodian 
Elpias, 

15. The original site of Salapia was at some distance 
from the coast ; but in consequence of the unhealthy exha- 
lations arising from the lake above mentioned, the inhabit- 
ants removed to a new town on the sea-coast, which was 
built by the praetor, M. Hostihus, with the approbation of 
the Roman senate, about b. c. 200. This new town served 
as the harbor of Arpi. The ruins of the ancient town still 
exist at some distance from the coast at the village of 
Salpi. 

16. Herdonia, to the S. E. of Luceria, and now Or- 
dona^ was destroyed by Hannibal, who removed its in- 
habitants to Thurii and Metapontum ; it was rebuilt by the 
Romans, but remained a place of no importance. 

17. AsciilumAp ilium, so called to distinguish it from 
Asculum Picenum, and now AscoU di jSatriano, was on the 
confines of Samnium, S. W. of Herdonia. N'ear it the 
Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus, b. c. 279. 

18. Yeniisia, now Venosa, an ancient town S. of the^ 
river Aufidus, and near Ht. Vultur, was situated in a ro- 
mantic country, and memorable as the birthplace of the 
poet Horace. It was originally a town of the Hirpini in 

■befell it in the Samnite war? 13. Where was Arpi, founded by -whom, and what 
the origin of its name? 14. Where was Salapia, and by whom founded ? 15. 
What change was made in its location ? l6. Where was Herdonia, and what be- 
came of it? 17. Where was Asculum Apulum, why so called, and for what 
noted ? 18. "Where was Venusia— the birth-place of whom— how noted in history ? 



154: ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Samnium, and after its original Sabellian inhabitants had 
been driven out by the Romans, it was colonized by the 
■latter, b. c. 291, and formed an important military station. 
Here the remnants of the Roman army took refuge after 
the fatal battle of Cannae, 216. 

19. At no great distance from it were : — 1. Forentum, 
now Forenza. 2. Bantia, now Banzi or Vanzi. 3. 
Acherontia, now Acerenza^ all which are mentioned by 
Horace, who speaks of the latter as celsae nidum Acheron- 
tiae. 

20. Canusium, ruins of which are still seen at Ganosa^ 
on the Aufidus, and on the high road from Rome to Brun- 
dusium, founded, according to tradition, by Diomedes, 
whence the surrounding country was called Campus Dio- 
medis. It was at all events a Greek colony, and both 
Greek and Oscan were spoken there in the time of Horace, 
{Ganusini more hilinguis^ Sat. I. 10, 30.) 

21. Canusium was a town of considerable importance, 
but suffered greatly, like most of the other towns in the S. 
of Italy, during the 2d Punic war. Here, as well as at 
Venusia, the remains of the Roman army took refuge after 
their defeat at Cannae, 216 b. c. It was celebrated for its 
mules and its woollen manufactures, but it had a deficient 
supply of water, (Hor. Sat. I. 5, 91.) 

22. Cannae, the site of which is now called Ganne^ 
was N". E. of Canusium, situated in an extensive plain E. of 
the Aufidus and IN", of the small river Vergellus, and is 
memorable for the defeat of the Romans by Hannibal, 
B. c. 216. 

TOWNS IN PEUCETIA. 

23. Barium, now Bari^ in Peucetia, was on the Adri- 
atic : it was celebrated for its fisheries, whence Horace calls 
it JBarium piscosum^ (Sat. I. 5, 97.) 

24. Egnatia, now Torre d^Anazzo, also on the coast, 
S. E. of Barium, is called Gnatia by Horace, (Sat. I. 5, 97,) 
who speaks of it as Lymphis iratis exstriccta^ probably on 
account of its bad, or deficient supply of water. 

25. It was celebrated for its miraculous stone or altar, 
which of itself set on fire frankincense and wood ; a prodigy 



19. W"hat three towns near it ? 20. Where was Canusium, said to have been 
founded by whom ? Hence surrounding country how called? How referred to 
by Horace ? 21. How is it noted in history, and for what was it celebrated ? 22. 
Where waa Cannae, memorable for what ? 23. Where was Barium, celebrated for 
what ? 24 Where was Egnatia, how called and described by Horace ? 25. For 



ITALIA. 155 

which afforded amusement to Horace and his friends, who 
looked upon it as a mere trick, (Sat. I. 5, 97-99.) 

26. Egnatia owed its chief importance to being situated 
on the great high road from Rome to Brundusium. This 
road reached the sea at Egnatia, and from this town to 
Brundusium it bore the name of the Via Egnatia. The 
continuation of this road on the other side of the Adriatic 
from Dyrrhachium to Byzantium also bore the name of the 
Via Egnatia. It was the great military road between 
Italy and the E. Commencing at Dyrrhachium, it passed by 
Lychnidus, Heraclea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thessalonica, Am- 
phipohs, Philippi, and traversing the whole of Thrace, 
finally reached Byzantium. 

27. Rubi, now J?w?;o, on the road just described, be- 
tween Canusium and Brundusium, is to be noted only be- 
cause it occurs in Horace's account of his journey to Brun- 
dusium. 

28. Rudiae, now JRotigliano or Ruge^ on the road 
from Brundusium to Yenusia, was originally a Greek colony, 
and afterwards a Roman municipium. It is celebrated as 
the birthplace of Ennius. This city was in the territory of 
the Poediculi. 

TOWNS IIJ^" MESSAPIA OK lAPTGIA. 

29. Although the Greeks gave to the heel or whole 
southern peninsula of Italy the name of Messapia or lapygia, 
this was again subdivided into Calabria on the eastern, and 
Messapia on the western coast ; the eastern coast being in- 
habited by the Calabri, while the Sallentini or Salentini 
dwelt around the promontory lapygium, which is hence 
called Salentinum or Salentina. It is difficult to distinguish, 
and to assign exact hmits to these two people. 

30. Brundusium or Brundisium, called by the 
Greeks BpevTTJcrtov or Bpei/recrtov, now JBrindisi^ a town of the 
Calabri, was on a small bay on the Adriatic, forming an 
excellent harbor, to which the place owed its importance. 
The Via Appia terminated at Brundusium, and it was the 
usual place of embarkation for Greece and the East. 

31. It was an ancient town, and probably not of Greek 
origin, although its foundation is ascribed by some writers 
to the Cretans, and by others to Diomedes. It was at first 

•what was it celebrated ? 26. To what did Ea:natia chiefly owe its importance ? 
27. Where was Eubi, and why noted ? 28. Where was Kudiae, and for what 
noted ? 29. How was Messapia or lapj'gia divided, and by whom inhabited ? 30. 
Where was Brundusium, and what made it important? 31. What is said of 



156 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

governed by kings of its own, but was conquered and col- 
onized by the Romans b. c. 245. 

32. The poet Pacuvius was born in this town, and Yirgil 
died here on his return from Greece, b. c. 19. At this 
place also terminated the journey of which Hoi'ace gives a 
very humorous account in the Fifth Satii'e of the First 
Book of his Satires. 

33. Hydrus or Hydruntum, now Otranto^ one of 
the most ancient towns of Calabria, was situated on the S. 
E. coast, and near a mountain Hydrus. It had a good 
harbor, and was in later times a municipium. It was 
directly opposite, and only 50 miles from the Acrocerau- 
nium promontorium, and persons frequently crossed over to 
Epirus from this port. 

34. Uria, now Oria^ called Hyria by Herodotus, on 
the road from Brundisium to Tarentum, was the ancient 
capital of lapygia, and is said to have been founded by the 
Cretans under Minos. 

35. Leuca, (ra AevKa,) was at the extremity of the 
lapygian promontory, which is still called Capo cU Leuca. 
It is noted for a stinking fountain, under which the giants 
who were vanquished by Hercules are said to have been 
buried, thus giving rise to the stench which filled the 
whole neighborhood. 

36. Manduria, now Casal N^uovo, was on the road 
from Tarentum to Hydi-untum, and near a small lake, 
which is said to have been always fuU to the edge, what- 
ever water was added to or taken from it. Here Archidamus 
HI., king of Sparta, was defeated and slain in battle by the 
Messaj)iaus and Lucanians, b. c. 338. 

37. Tarentum, called by the Greeks Tapa?, (-ai/Tos,) 
now Taranto^ an important Greek city, was situated on the 
W. coast of the peninsula of Calabria, and on a bay of the 
sea, about 12 miles in circuit, forming an excellent harbor, 
and being a portion of the Sinus Tarentinus. The city 
stood in the midst of a beautiful and fertile country, S. of 
Mt. Aulon and W. of the mouth of the Galaesus, or Galesus, 
now Galeso. It was originally built by the lapygians, who 
are said to have been joined by some Cretan colonists from 

its origin and its government ? 32. "Who was liorn, and who died here, and what 
poem renders t&is place famous? S3. Where was Hydrus or Hydruntum ? 

34. WTiere was Uria, what was it, and said to have been founded by whom ? 

35. Where was Leuca, and for what legend is it noted ? 36. Where was Man- 
duria, what remarkable lake in its vicinity, the city how noted in history ? 37. 
"Where was Tarentum, originall7 built by whom, deriving its name from whom ? 



ITALIA. 157 

the neighboring town of Uria, and it derived its name from 
the mythical Taras, a son of Poseidon. 

38. The greatness of Tarentum, however, dates from 
B. c, 708, when the original inhabitants were expelled, and 
the town was taken possession of by a strong body of 
Lacedaemonian Partheniae nnder the guidance of Phalan- 
thus. It soon became the most powerful and flourishing 
city in the whole of Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind 
of supremacy over the other Greek cities in Italy. It car- 
ried on an extensive commerce, possessed a considerable 
fleet of ships of war, and was able to bring into the field, 
with the assistance of its allies, an army of 30,000 foot and 
3,000 horse. The city itself, in its most flourishing period, 
contained 22,000 men capable of bearing arms. 

39. The government of Tarentum Was difierent at 
various periods. In the time of Darius Hystaspes, Herod- 
otus speaks of a king {rvpawo?) of Tarentum: but at a 
later period the government was a democracy. Archytas, 
who was born at Tarentum, and who lived about b. c. 400, 
drew up a code of laws for his native city. 

40. With the increase of Avealth the citizens became 
luxurious and efleminate, and being hard pressed by the Lu- 
canians and other barbarians in the neighborhood, they 
were obliged to apply for aid to the mother country. Archi- 
damus, son of Agesilaus, was the first who came to their 
assistance, in b. c. 338, and he feU in battle fighting on their 
behalf The next prince whom they invited to succor them 
was Alexander, king of Epirus, and uncle to Alexander the 
Great. At first he met with considerable success, but was 
eventually defeated and slain by the Bruttii in 326, near 
Pandosia on the banks of the Acheron. 

41. Shortly afterwards the Tarentines had to encounter 
a still more formidable enemy. Having attacked some Ro- 
man ships, and then grossly insulted the Roman ambassa- 
dors who had been sent to demand reparation, war was 
declared against the city by the powerful republic. The 
Tarentines were saved for a time by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
who came to their help in 281 ; but two years after the 
defeat of this monarch and his withdrawal from Italy, the 
city was taken by the Romans, (272.) 



38. From what year and event does the greatness of Tarentum date, the city be- 
coming what ? 39. What was the government of Tarentum? 40. What change 
did the character of the Tarentines undergo, and what results grew out of iti 
41. What more formidable enemy did the Tarentines next encounter, who saved 



158 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

42. In the second Punic war Tarentum revolted from 
Rome to Hannibal, (212;) but it was retaken by the Ro- 
mans in 207, and w^as treated by them with great severity. 
From this time Tarentum declined m wealth and prosperity. 
It was subsequently made a Roman colony, and it st&l con- 
tinued to be a place of considerable importance in the time 
of Augustus. Its inhabitants retained their love of luxury 
and ease ; and it is described by Horace as Molle Tarentum^ 
and imhelle Tarentum. 

43. The town of Tarentum consisted of two parts, viz., 
of a peninsula or island at the entrance of the harbor, and 
of a town on the main land, which was connected with the 
island by means of a bridge. On the JST. W". corner of the 
island, close to the entrance of the harbor, was the citadel ; 
the principal part of the town was situated S. W. of the 
isthmus. The modern town is confined to the island or 
peninsula on which the citadal stood. Even after the down- 
fall of the Western Empire the Greek language was still 
spoken at Tarentum. 

44. The neighborhood of Tarentum produced the best 
wool in all Italy, and was also celebrated for its excellent 
wine, figs, pears, and other fruits. Its purple dye was also 
much valued in antiquity. 

45. N"ear Tarentum was a fertile valley, called Anion, 
now Melone^ celebrated for its wine, {amicus Aulonfertili 
JBaccho: Hor. Carm. II. 6, 18.) l^ear this city was also 

46. Saturium or Satureinm, now 8aturio^ a town 
celebrated for its horses. (Hor. Sat. I. 6, 59.) 

B. — Lucania. 

1. Lucania w^as bounded on the K. W. by Campania, 
or more particularly, by the territory of the Picentini : on 
the I^. by Samnium : on the jN". E. by Apulia : on the S. E. 
by the Sinus Tarentinus : on the S. by Bruttium : on the W. 
and S. "W. by the Mare Tyrrhenum or Inferum ; thus cor- 
responding for the most part to the modern provinces of 
Principato^ Citeriore^ and Basilicata in the kingdom of 
]N"aples. It was separated from Campania by the river Sila- 
rus, and from Bruttium by the river Laus, now the Lao, and 

them, and what -was the final event? 42. What -was the conduct of Tarentum in 
the 2d Punio war, and what its subsequent fate ? 43. Of what parts did the town 
of T. consist— where was the citadel, where the principal part of the town : the 
modern town confined to what? 44. The neighborhood of Tarentum produced 
what, and was also celebrated for what ? 45. What valley, for what noted, was 
near Tarentum ? 46. What town, noted for what, was near Tarentum ? 



ITALIA. 159 

it extended along the gulf of Tarentum from Thurii to 
Metapontum. 

2. The country is mountainous, as the Apennines run 
through the greater part of it ; but towards the gulf of Ta- 
rentum there is an extensive and fertile plain. Lucania was 
celebrated for its excellent pastures, (Hor.Epod. I. 28 ;) and 
its oxen were the finest and largest in Italy. Hence the ele- 
phant was at first called by the Komans a Lucanian ox, (Zm- 
cas bos.) The swine also were very good ; and a peculiar 
kind of sausages were celebrated at Rome under the name 
of Lucanica. 

3. The coast of Lucania was inhabited chiefly by Greeks, 
whose cities were numerous and flourishing. The interior 
of the country was originally inhabited by the Chones and 
Oenotrians. The Lucanians proper were Samnites or Sabel- 
lians, a brave and warlike race, who left their mother-coun- 
try and settled both in Lucania and Bruttium. They not 
only expelled or subdued the Oenotrians, but they gradu- 
ally acquired possession of most of the Greek cities on the 
coast. They were subdued by the Romans after Pyrrhus 
had left Italy. Before the 2d Punic war their forces con- 
sisted of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse, but in the course of 
this war their country was repeatedly laid waste, and never 
recovered its former prosperity. 

CITIES OF LUCANIA. 

4. Metapontium, called Metapontum by the Ro- 
mans, MeTaTTovTiov by the Greeks, and of which consider- 
able remains are still to be seen near Torre di Mare^ was a 
celebrated Greek city on the Sinus Tarent., and on the E. 
coast of Lucania : it is said to have been originally called 
Metabum. There were various traditions respecting its 
foimdation, all of which point to its high antiquity, but from 
which we cannot gather any certain information on the 
subject. 

5. It is said to have been destroyed by the Samnites, 
and to have been repeopled by a colony of Achaeans, who 
had been invited for that purpose by the inhabitants of Sy- 
baris. Hence it is called by Livy an Achaean town, and is 
regarded by some writers as a colony from Sybaris. 

1. How -was Lucania bounded? 2. What is the face of the countrj^, and for 
what was Lucania celebrated ? 3. By what people was Lucania inhabited, and what 
v/ere the Lucanians proper? 4. Where was Metapontum, originally how called, 
what account have wo of its origin ? 6. Who destroyed, and who repeopled it, 



160 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

6. It fell into the hands of the Romans in the war against 
Pyrrhus ; but it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of 
Cannae. From the time of the second Punic war it disap- 
pears from history, and was in ruins in the time of Pausa- 
nias. 

I. Pythagoras was held in particular estimation among 
the Metapontini, in whose city he is said to have resided for 
many years. After his death the house which he had inhab- 
ited was converted into a temple of Ceres. 

8. Heraclea, on the river Siris, is noted chiefly for the 
first defeat sustained by the Romans in the war with Pyr- 
rhus, the adjoining plain affording the level ground which 
that monarch required for his heavy phalanxes and ele- 
phants, (b. c. 200.) 

9. Sybaris was situated between the rivers Sybaris 
( Coscile) and Crathis, ( Crati^) at a short distance from the 
Tarentine gulf, and near the confines of Bruttium. It was 
founded b. c. 720, by Achaeans and Troezenians, and soon 
attained an extraordinary degree of prosperity and wealth. 
It carried on an extensive commerce with Asia Minor and 
other countries on the Mediterranean, and its inhabitants 
became so notorious for luxury and pleasure, that their 
name was employed to indicate any voluptuary. 

10. At the time of their highest prosperity their city 
was 50 stadia, upwards of 6 miles, in circumference, and they 
exercised dominion over twenty-five towns, so that we are 
told they were able to bring into the field 300,000 men, a 
number, however, quite incredible. 

II. But their prosperity was of short duration. The 
Achaeans having expelled the Troezenian part of the popu- 
lation, the latter took refuge at the neighboring city of Cro- 
ton, the inhabitants of which espoused their cause. In the 
war which ensued between the two states, the Sybarites 
were completely conquered by the Crotoniates, who fol- 
lowed up their victory by the caj)ture of Sybaris, which 
they destroyed by turning the waters of the river Crathis 
against the town, b. c. 510. The greater number of the 
surviving Sybarites took refuge in other Greek cities in 
Italy; but a few remained near their ancient town, and 

•whence how called, b5'- whom? 6. When did it fall into the hands of the Romans, 
and what was its subsequent fate? 7. What celebrated philosopher resided 
here ? 8. Where was Heraclea, noted chiefly for what ? 9. Where was Sybaris, 
founded when and by w^hom,— what were the pursuits, and the character of 
the inhabitants? 10. What was the extent of the city, and of the dominion un- 
der it ? 11. What brought this prosperity to a termination, and what became 



ITALIA. 161 

their descendants formed part of the population of Thurii, 
which was founded in 443, near Sybaris. 

12. Eighty-seven years after the destruction of Sybaris, 
and near its ancient site, Thurii was built by the remains 
of the population of Sybaris assisted by colonists from all 
parts of Greece, but especially from Athens. Among these 
colonists were the historian Herodotus and the orator Ly- 
sias, the latter of whom, however, was only a youth at the 
time and subsequently returned to Athens. 

13. The new city, (on the site of which is Terra Nuova^ 
from which the remains of the Sybarites were soon expel- 
led, rapidly attained great power and prosperity, and be- 
came one of the most important Greek towns in the S. of 
Italy. In the Samnite wars Thurii received a Koman gar- 
rison ; but it revolted to Hannibal in the second Punic 
war. The Romans subsequently planted a colony here, 
and changed the name of the city into Copiae ; but it con- 
tinued to retain its original name, under which it is men- 
tioned by Caesar in the civil war as a municipium. 

14. Paestum, originally called Posidonia, (Iloo-etScoi/ta,) 
was situated between 4 and 5 miles S. E. of the mouth of 
the Silarus, and near the bay which derived its name, 
Sinus Paestarms^ from the town. Its origin is uncertain, 
but it was probably in existence before it was colonized by 
the Sybarites, about 524 b. c. . 

15. It soon became a powerful and flourishing city; but 
after its capture by the Lucanians, (between 438 and 424,) 
it gradually lost the characteristics of a Greek city, and its 
inhabitants at length ceased to speak the Greek language. 
Its ancient name of Posidonia was probably changed into 
that of Paestum at this time. 

16. Under the supremacy of the Romans, who founded 
a Latin colony at Paestum about b. c. 273, the town grad- 
ually sank in importance ; and in the time of Augustus it is 
mentioned only on account of the beautiful roses grown in 
its neighborhood. 

17. The ruins of Paestum are striking and magnificent. 
They consist of remains of walls, of an amphitheatre, of 
two fine temples, and of another building. The two 



of the city and its inhabitants ? 12. By whom was Thurii built and where? 13. 
What did the new city become, and what was its subsequent fate ? 14. Paestum, 
originally how called, was where situated, and what is known of its origin ? 15. 
It soon became what, subsequently itndergoing what change? 16. What became 
of it under the supremacy of the Romans ? 17. What evidences of its former 



162 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

temples are in the Doric style, and are some of the most 
remarkable ruins of antiquity. 

18. Velia or Elea, also called Hyele, {'YeXrj ;) the 
different forms are owing to the word having originally the 
Aeolic digamma, which the Romans changed into Y : the 
ruins are quite near CastelP a Mare delta Brucca ; a 
Greek town on the W. coast between Paestum and Baxen- 
tum, was founded by the Phocaeans who had abandoned 
their native city Phocaea, in Asia Minor, to escape from 
the Persian sovereignty, about b. c. 543. It was situated 
about three miles E. of the river Hales, and possessed a 
good harbor. 

19. Elea is celebrated as the birthplace of the philoso- 
phers Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school of 
philosophy usually known under the name of the Eleatic. 
It possessed a celebrated temple of Demeter or Ceres. 
Cicero, who resided at Velia at one time, frequently men- 
tions it in his correspondence, and it appears to have been 
accounted a healthy -place, (Hor. Ep. I. 15, 1.) In the time 
of Strabo it had ceased to be a place of importance. 

20. Laus, a Greek city near the mouth of the river 
Laus, now Xao, which formed the boundary between Lu- 
cania and Bruttium. It was founded by the Sybarites 
after their own city had been taken by the inhabitants of 
CrotoUj B. c. 510, but it had disappeared in the time of 
Pliny. The gulf into which the river Laus flowed was 
called the Laus Sinus, now the Gulf of Policastro. 

21. Grumentum, now II JPalazzo, near jSaponara, in 
the interior, on the road from Beneventum to Heraclea, is 
frequently mentioned in connection with the 2d Piinic war. 

22. The river Silarus, now the jSilaro, forming the 
boundary between Lucania and Campania, rises in the 
Apennines, and after receiving the Tanager, {N^egri^) and 
Calor, ( Galore,) falls into the Sinus Paestanus a little to the 
]Sr. of Paestum. Its water is said to have petrified plants. 

O. — Bruttium. 

1. Bruttium, Bruttius, and Bruttiorum Ager, 
(BpcTTta,) more usually called Brut til after the inhabit- 

magnificence are still extant ? 18. "Wliere -was Velia, and fotinded by whom ? 
19. For -what is Elea celebrated ? 20. Where was Laus, and founded by whom? 
21. Where was Grumentum, and how noted ? 22. Where was the river Silarus, 
forming what, possessing what property ? 

1. Where was Bruttium, how bound'ed, in ancient times how called ? 2. What 



ITALIA. 163 

ants, the S. extremity of Italy, separated from Lucania by 
a line drawn from the mouth of the Laus to Thm-ii, and 
surrounded on the other three sides by the sea. It was 
the country called in ancient times Oenotria and Italia. 

2. The country is mountainous, as the Apennines run 
through it down to the Fretum Siculum : it afforded ex- 
cellent pasturage for cattle, and the valleys produced good 
corn, olives, and fruit. 

3. The earliest inhabitants of the country were Oeno- 
trians. Subsequently some Lucanians, who had revolted 
from their countrymen in Lucania, (some say they were 
slaves,) took possession of the country, and were hence 
called JBruttii or JBrettii, which word is said to mean " reb- 
els " in the language of the Lucanians. This people, how- 
ever, inhabited, at first, only the interior of the land ; the 
coast was almost entirely in the possession of the Greek 
colonies. But even these, with the exception of Rhegium, 
Croton, and Locri, were all afterwards reduced to sub- 
jection by those hardy savages. 

4. At the close of the 2d Punic war, in w^hich the 
Bruttii had been the allies of Hannibal, they lost their in- 
dependence and were treated by the Romans with great 
severity. They were declared to be public slaves, and were 
employed as lictors, couriers, and letter-carriers. 

EIVEES IN BETJTTIUM. 

5. The rivers of Bruttium are aU smaU coast-streams. 
They are, 1, The Ocinarus, now, Bagni^ W. of the'Laus ; 
2, Sabbatus, (/Sa?;«^oy) 3, Lametus, or Lamecus, and 
Lamatus, {Lamato ;) 4, Angitula, {Angitola ;) 5, Me- 
dama, {Metramo ;) 6, Metaurus, (ifarro ;) Y, Cratais, 
{Fallace ;) 8, Alex, [Alace^) W. of Prom. Zephyrium; 9, 
Trais or Traeis, {Trionto f) 10, Hylias, [Aquanile or 
Lacaneta^) between Cybaris and Croton ; 11, Crimisus, 
{Lipuda ;) 12, Neaethus, {JSfeto^) in the territory of Cro- 
ton ; 13, Aesarus, {Esaro^) discharging itself into the sea 
above Croton, and forming a good harbor at its mouth; 
14, Tacina, {Lo Stecato^) rises in Alibanus Mons and 
empties into the Scyllacius Sinus; 15, Arocha, {Crocha ;) 
16, Semirus, {Simari ;) 17, Crotalus, {Alii ;) 18, Car- 
cine s, (Corace ;) these last four also empty into the Scyl- 

is the nature of the country, and what were its productions? 3. Who were the 
earliest inhabitants ; why called Bruttii, dwelling where ? 4. What became of 
them after the 2d Punic war ? 5. What rivers in Bruttium, bearing what modern 



164 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

laciusSiu. ; 19, Caecinus or Caicinus, (Ancinale ;) 20, 
S a g r a s , {Alaro /) 2 1 , B u t r o t u s , (Bruciano ;) tlic last 
two between Stilis and Locri. 

CITIES OF BEUTTIUM. 

6. Crimlsa or Crimissa. on the E. coast, on a prom- 
ontory of the same name, and a little S. of the river Ori- 
misus, on the banks of which Timolcon defeated the 
Carthaginians b. c. 339, is said to have been founded by 
Philoctetes on his return from the siege of Troy, and here 
his tomb is said to have stood on the shore. 

7. Petelia or Pet ilia, the site of which is now 
occupied by Strongoll^ on the E. coast, was also founded 
according to tradition, by Philoctetes. It was situated 
IST. of Croton, to whose territory it originally belonged ; 
but it was afterv/ards conquered by the Lucanians. 

8. It remained faithful to the Romans, when the other 
cities of Bruttium revolted to Hannibal, and it was not till 
after a long and desperate resistance that it was taken by 
one of Hannibal's generals. It was repeopled by Ilaimibal 
with Bruttians, but the Romans subsequently collected the 
remains of the former j^opulation, and put them again in 
possession of the town. 

9. Croton or Crotona, a Greek city on the E. coast, 
on the river Aesarus, (^JEsaro^) and in a very healthy local- 
ity, was founded by the Achaeans under Myscellus of 
Aegae, assisted by the Spartans, b. c. 710. Its extensive 
commerce, the virtue of its inhabitants, and the excellence 
of its institutions, made it the most powerful and flourish- 
ing town in the S. of Italy. 

10. It owed much of its greatness to Pythagoras, who 
estabhshed his school here. Gymnastics were cultivated 
here in greater perfection than in any other Greek city, 
and one of its citizens, Milo, was the most celebrated Ath- 
lete in Greece. 

11. It attained its greatest powder by the destruction 
of Sybaris in 510 ; but it subsequently dechned in conse- 
quence of the severe defeat it sustained from the Locrians 
on the river Sagras, {Alaro ^ It suffered greatly in the 
wars with Dionysius, Agathocles, and Pyrrhus ; and in the 

names ? 6. "Where was Crimisa, founded by ■whom ? T. Where was Petilia, by whom 
founded, belonging to whose territory ? 8. What was its conduct and fate in the 2d 
Punic war and afterwards ? 9. Where and what was Croton, how situated, by whom 
founded ? 10. To Avhat cause did it owe much of its greatness ? 11. How did it 



ITALIA. 165 

second Punic war a considerable part of it had ceased 
to be inhabited. It received a colony from the Romans 
in 195. 

12. Scylacium, also Scylaceum or Scylletium, 
now Squillace^ on the E. coast, was situated on two ad- 
joining hills at a short distance from the coast, between 
the rivers Caecinus and Carcines. It is said to have been 
founded by the Athenians. It belonged to the territory 
of Croton, but was subsequently given by the elder Diony- 
sius to the Locrians, and came eventually into the posses- 
sion of the Romans. 

13. It had no harbor, whence Virgil (Aen. III. 553) 
speaks of it as navifragum Scylaceum. From this town 
the Scyllacius or Scylleticus Sinus {G. of Squillace) de- 
rived its name. The isthmus which separates this bay 
from the Sinus Hipponiates on the W. coast was only 20 
miles broad, and formed the ancient boundary of Oeno- 
tria. 

14. Caulon or Caulonia, N. E. of Locri, originally 
called Anion or Aulonia, was founded by the inhabitants 
of Croton or by the Achaeans : it was destroyed by the 
elder Dionysius, who removed its inhabitants to Syracuse 
and gave its territory to Locri: afterwards rebuilt, but 
again destroyed in the war with Pyrrhus : rebuilt a third 
time and destroyed a third time in the second Punic war. 
It was celebrated for the worshij) of the Delphian Apollo. 
Its name is preserved in the hill Caulone in the neighbor- 
hood of Castel Yetere. 

15. Locri, surnamed Epizephyrii, (on the site of 
the present Motta di JBurzano^) one of the most ancient 
Greek cities in Lower Italy, was situated in the S. E. of 
Bruttium, E". of the promontory of Zephyrium, from 
which it was said to have derived its surname Epizephyrii, 
though others suppose this name given to the place, simply 
because it lay to the W. of Greece. 

16. It was founded by the Locrians from Greece, b. c. 
683. Strabo expressly says that it was founded by the 
Ozolae, and not by the Opuntii, as most writers related ; 
but this statement is not so probable as the common one. 

attain its greatest power, and what became of it afterwards ? 12. "Where was 
Scylacium, founded by whom, possessed, successively, by whom? 13. As a mari- 
time city, what was "its position, what derived its name from it, what isthmus 
here? 14. Where was CauloD, founded by whom, destroyed how often, celebrated 
for what, its name where preserved? 15. Where was Locri, and whence was its 
Burname derived? 16. By whom was it founded? The iiihabHants regarded 



166 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

The inhabitants regarded themselves as descendants of Ajax 
Oileus ; and as he resided at the town of JSTaryx among 
the Opuntiij the poets gave the name oiNarycia to Locris, 
and called the founders of the town the JSTarycii Locri^ 
(Yirg. Aen. III. 399.) For the same reason the pitch of 
Bruttium is frequently called Narycia, (Yirg. Georg. 
.11. 438.) 

17. Locri was celebrated for the excellence of its laws, 
which were drawn up by Zaleucus soon after the founda- 
tion of the city. The town enjoyed great prosperity down 
to the time of the younger Dionysius, who resided here for 
some years after his expulsion from Syracuse, and commit- 
ted the greatest atrocities against the inhabitants. It suf- 
fered much in the wars against Pyrrhus and in the 2d 
Punic war. The Romans allowed it to retain its freedom 
and its own constitution, which was democratical ; but it 
gradually lost its importance, and is rarely mentioned in 
later times. ISTear it was an ancient and wealthy temj)le 
of Proserpina. 

18. Terina, now St. Eufemia^ on the W. coast, gave 
name to the Sinus Terinaeus. It was a Greek city founded 
by Croton, and was originally a place of some importance. 
Hannibal destroyed it in the 2d Punic war. 

19. Yibo, now Monteleone., the Roman form of the 
Greek name Hipponium, a Greek town situated on the 
S. W. coast, and on a gulf called after it Sinus Yibonen- 
sis or Hipponiates. It is said to have been founded 
by the Locri Epizephyiii ; but it was destroyed by the 
elder Dionysius, who transplanted its inhabitants to Syra- 
cuse. 

20. It was afterwards restored ; and at a later time it 
fell into the hands of the Bruttii, together with the other 
Greek cities on this coast. It was taken by the Romans, 
w^ho colonized it e. c. 194, and called it Yibo Yalentia. 
Cicero speaks of it as a municipium ; and in the time of 
Augustus it was one of the most flourishing cities in the S. 
of Italy. 

21. Rhegium, now Reggio^ a celebrated Greek town 
on the coast, was situated on the Fretum Siculum, or the 
Straits which separate Italy and Sicily. The ancients de- 

tliemselves as whose descendants ? 17. For what was Locri celebrated, what was 
its condition, its suffering, and its final fate? 18. Where was Terina, giving 
name to what, founded by whom, and destroyed by whom? 19. Where was Vibo, 
what called after it, founded by whom, and destroyed by whom ? 20. What be- 
came of it afterwards, and what name was given it ? 21. What and where was 



ITAI.IA. 167 

rived its name from piqyvviii " to break," because it was 
supposed that Sicily was at this place torn asunder from 
Italy. 

22. Rhegium was founded about the beginning of the 
first Messenian war, b. c. 743, by Aeolian Chalcidians from 
Euboea and by Doric Messenians, who had quitted their 
native country on the commencement of hostilities between 
Sparta and Messenia. At the end of the 2d Messenian war, 
668, a large body of Messenians, under the conduct of the 
Sons of Aristomenes, settled at Rhegium, which now be- 
came a flourishing and important city, and extended its 
authority over several of the neighboring towns. 

23. The government was an aristocracy, but in the 
beginning of the 5th century b. c, Anaxilaus, who was of 
a Messenian family, made himself tyrant of the place. In 
494 this Anaxilaus conquered Zancle in Sicily, the name of 
which he changed into Messilna. He ruled over the two 
cities, and on his death in 476 he bequeathed his power 
to his sons. About ten years afterwards (466) his sons 
were driven out of Rhegium and Messana, and republican 
governments were established in both cities, which now 
became independent of one another. 

24. At a later period Rhegium incurred the deadly 
enmity of Dionysius the elder in consequence of a personal 
insult which the inhabitants had offered him. It is said 
that when he asked the Rhegians to give him one of their 
maidens for his wife, they replied that they could only 
grant him the daughter of their pubhc executioner. 
Dionysius carried on war for a long time against the city, 
and after two or three unsuccessful attempts he at length 
took the place, which he treated with the greatest severity. 
Rhegium never recovered its former greatness, though it 
still continued to be a place of considerable importance. 
The younger Dionysius gave it the name of Phoebia ; but 
this name never came into general use, and v/as speedily 
forgotten. 

25. The Rhegians having applied to Rome for assistance 
when Pyrrhus was in the S. of Italy, the Romans placed in 
the town a garrison of 4,000 soldiers who had been levied 
among the Latin colonies in Campania. These troops 
seized the town in 279, killed or expelled the male inhabit- 

Rhegium, its name derived from what ? 22. When and by whom was it founded 
and settled ? 23. What was its government, and what changes did this undergo ? 
2-i. How did it incur the enmity of Dionysius, with what consequences ? 25. 



168 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

ants, and took possession of their wives and children. The 
Romans were too much engaged at the time with their 
war against Pyrrhus to take notice of this outrage ; but 
when Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, they took signal 
vengeance upon these Campanians, and restored the sur- 
viving Ehegians to their city. 

26. Rhegium suffered greatly from an earthquake 
shortly before the breaking out of the Social war, 90 b. c. ; 
but its pojDulation was augmented by Augustus, w^ho set- 
tled here a number of veterans from his fleet, whence the 
town bears in Ptolemy the surname Julium. Rhegium 
was the place from which persons usually crossed over to 
Sicily, but the spot at which they embarked was called 
Columna Rhegina, {Torre di Carallo^) and was 100 
stadia (about 12 miles) IST. of the town. The Greek lan- 
guage continued to be spoken at Rhegium tiU a very late 
time, and the town was subject to the Byzantine court 
long after the downfall of the Western empire. 

27. Consentia, now Gosenza^ chief town of the 
Bruttii, was on the river Crathis. Here Alaric died. South 
of this, to the Sicilian straits, a distance of 700 stadia, i, e. 
87 miles, extended the Sila Silva, a large forest princi- 
pally of fir, celebrated for the excellent pitch which it 
yielded. 

28. Mamertium, of uncertain site, was founded by a 
band of Samnites, who had left their mother country under 
the protection of Mamers or Mars, to seek a new home. 
The remaining towns of Bruttium it isnot necessary tonotice. 

29. Magna Graecia, or G. Major, was the name 
given to the districts in the S. of Raly, inhabited by the 
Greeks. This name was never used simply to mdicate the 
S. of Raly : it was always confined to the Greek cities and 
their territories, and did not include the surrounding dis- 
tricts, inhabited by the Ralian tribes. R appears to have 
been applied chiefly to the cities on the Tarentine gulf, 
Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, Siris, (Heraclea,) 
Metapontum, Locri, and Rhegium ; but it also includedthe 
Greek cities on the W. coast, such as Cumae and Keapolis. 
Strabo extends the appellation even to the Greek cities of 
Sicily. The origin of the name is doubtful ; whether it was 



How did the city fare in the wars of Pyrrhus ? 26, Erom what other calamity 
did Rhegium suffer, and who restored, in a measure, its importance? 27. What 
and where was Consentia, and wlio died here? What forest extends South of 
this ? 28. For what is Mamertium noted ? 29. What is meant by Magna Graecia ? 



ITALIA. 169 

given to the Greek cities by tlie Italian tribes from their 
admiring the magnificence of these cities, or whether it 
was assumed by the inhabitants themselves out of vanity 
and ostentation, to show their superiority to the mother 
country. 



4.— T/ae Islands of Italy. 

A.— Islands off the Coast of Etruria. 

1. The following islands lay off the coast of Etruria : — 1. 
TJrgo or Gorgon, now Gorgona^ IST. of Ilva. 2. Mae- 
naria, now Meloria, 3. Ilva or Aethalia, now Elba. 
4. Planasia or Planaria, now JPianosa, to which Au- 
gustus banished his grandson Agrippa Postumus. 5. 
Oglasa, now J!/b^2^6 Cristo, 6. Capraria or Caprasia, 
now Capraja^ between Populonia and the ^. extremity 
of Corsica, inhabited only by wild goats, whence its name. 
1. Columbaria, now Palmar ola. 8. Opposite the har- 
bor of Cossa, the two small islands, Igilium, now Giglio^ 
and Dianium or Artemisium, now Gianuti. 

2. The only one of these islands which demands a 
more extended notice, is Ilva or Aethalia, in the Tuscan 
sea, opposite Populonia. Ilva was early celebrated for its 
rich iron mines ; but by whom they were first discovered 
and worked is uncertain, as they are said to exhibit the 
marks of labors carried on for an incalculable time. It 
even seems to have been a popular belief among the an- 
cients, that the metallic substance was constantly renewed. 
It is probable that the Phoenicians were the first to make 
known the mineral riches of this island, and that it was 
from them the Tyrrheni learnt to estimate its value. It is 
to the latter people that Cramer traces the name of Aetha^ 
iia ; since it appears that Lemnos, which they once inhabit- 
ed, bore, according to Polybius, the same appellation in 
ancient times. 

B. — ^Islands off the Coast of Latium. 

1. The islands off the coast of Latium are ; — 1. Palma- 
ria, now Palmaruola^ Pontia, Sinonia, noy^ Zannone, 
and Pandataria. 2. Pontia, now Pow^«, a rocky island 

1. What islands lay off the coast of Etruria? 2. For what is Ilva celebrated? 

8 



170 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

opposite Formiae, taken by the Romans from the Yol- 
scians, and colonized b. c. 313, was used by the Romans as 
a place of banishment for state criminals. 3. To Panda- 
taria, Julia, the daughter of Augustus, was banished. It 
is now Yandotena or Venchctene. 

C. — ^Islands oflf the Coast of Campania. 

1. The islands off the coast of Campania w^ere : Aena- 
ria, Prochyta, Nesis, and Capreae. 

2. Aenaria, also called Pithecusa and Inarime, 
was a volcanic island at the entrance of the Bay of i^aples ; 
under it the Roman poets represented Tiphoeus as lying. 
It is now called Ischia. 

3. Prochyta, now JProcida, near the promontory 
Misenum, is said to have been torn away by an earthquake 
either from this promontory or from the neighboring 
island of Aenaria. 

4. Nesis, noAV JVisita, between Puteoli and N'eapolis, 
and opposite Mt. Pausilypus, was a favorite residence of 
some of the Roman nobles. 

5. Capreae, now Capri, 9 miles in circumference, at 
the S. entrance of the gulf of Puteoli, and 2^ miles from 
the promontory of Minerva, from which the island had 
been sej^arated by an earthquake. It is composed of cal- 
careous rocks, which rise to two summits, the highest of 
which is between 1,600 and 1,700 feet above the sea. The 
scenery is beautiful, and the climate soft and genial. 

6. Accorduig to tradition, it was originally inhabited 
by the Teleboae, but afterwards belonged to the inhabit- 
ants of Neapolis, from whom Augustus either purchased it 
or obtained it in exchange for the island of Pithecusa. 

7. Here Tiberius lived the last ten years of his reign, in- 
dulging in secret debauchery, and accessible only to his 
creatures. He erected many magnificent buildings on the 
island, the chief of which was the Yilla Jovis, and the ruins 
of which are still to be seen. 



1, What islands off the coast of Latitim ? 2. For what was Pontia used by the 
Romans? 3. For what is Pandataria noted? 

1. What islands were ofi' the coast of Campania ? 2. Aenaria, having what 
other names, was where — what legend connected with it ? 3. Where was Pro- 
chyta, and how remarkable ? 4. Where and what was Nesis ? 5. Capreae, how 
large, where, composed of what, distinguished for what? 6, To whom did it suc- 
cessively belong ? 7. What emperor lived here ? 



ITALIA. 171 



D.— SiciKa. 



1. Sicilia, Sicily y one, of the largest islands in the Med- 
iterranean Sea, was supposed by the ancients to be the 
same as the Homeric island Thrinacia, (©ptmKia,) and it 
was, therefore, frequently called Thrinacia, Trinacia, or 
Trinacris,a name which was believed to be derived from 
the triangular figure of the island. For the same reason 
the Roman poets called it Triquetra. Its more usual 
name came from its later inhabitants, the Siceh, whence it 
was called Sicelia, (SiKcAai,) which the Romans changed 
into Sicilia. As the Siceli also bore the name of Sicani, 
the island was also called Sicania. 

2. Sicily is separated from Italy, or the W. coast of 
Bruttium, by a narrow channel called Fretum Siculum, 
sometimes simply Fretum, (IIop^/xos,) and also Scyl- 
laeum Fretum, of which the modern name is Faro di 
Messina. The sea on the E. and S. of the island was also 
called Mare Siculum. The island itself is in the shape 
of a triangle. The IST. and S. sides are about 175 miles 
each in length, and the length of the E. side is about 115 
miles. 

3. The IS". W. point, the Prom. Lilybaeum, is about 
90 miles from C. Bon on the coast of Africa : the IST. E. 
point. Prom. Pelorus, is about 3 miles from the coast of 
Calabria in Italy; and theS. E. point. Prom. Pachynus, 
is 60 miles from the island of Malta. Prom. Lilybaeum is 
now Cape Boeo or di Marsala : Pelorus, C. Faro : Pachy- 
nus, C. Passaro. 

4. Sicily formed originally part of Italy, and was torn 
away from it by some volcanic eruption, as the ancients 
generally behoved. 

5. A range of mountains, which are a continuation of 
the Apennines, extends throughout the island from E. to 
W. The general name of this mountain-range was Ne- 
brodes Montes, {Madonia^ of which there were several 
offshoots known by different names. Of these the most 
important were the celebrated volcano, Aetna: Mons 
Eryx, now Santo Giuliano^ in the extreme "W., near 

1. Sicilia was sTipposed to be what, hence how called, its more usual name 
derived from what ? 2. Sicily separated by what from Italy, surrounding sea how 
called, what the shape and external dimensions of the island ? 3. What were the 
chief Promontories, respectively how far from what other points ? 4. Sicily orig- 
inally formed what, and was separated by what ? 5. What was the face of the 
country, name of the principal mountain-range, names of the most important 



172 . ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Drepanum; and the Heraei Montes in the S., running 
down to the promontory Pachynus. 

6. Aetna Mons, now Monte Gihello^ a volcanic moun- 
tain in the N". E. of the island between Tauromenium and 
Catana, is said to have derived its name from Aetna, a 
Sicihan nymph, a daughter of Uranus and Gaea, or of 
Briareus. Zeus buried under it Typhon or Enceladus; 
and in its interior Hephaestos, and the Cyclopes forged 
the thunderbolts for Zeus. 

7. There were several eruptions of Mt. Aetna in anti- 
quity. One occurred in b. c. 475, to which Aeschylus and 
Pindar probably allude, and another in b. c. 425, which 
Thucydides says, (III. 116,) was the third on record since 
the Greeks had settled in Sicily. The form of the mountain 
seems to have been much the same in antiquity as it is at 
present. Its base covers an area of nearly 90 miles in cir- 
cumference, and its highest point is 10,874 feet above the 
level of the sea. The circumference of the crater is va- 
riously estimated from 2^ to 4 miles, and the depth from 
600 to 300 feet. 

RWEKS. 

8. A large number of rivers flow down from the moun- 
tains, but most of them are dry, or nearly so, in the sum- 
mer. We can specify only the more important. Among 
these we name first the Acis, now Fiume di Jaci. Acis, 
son of Faunus and Symaethis, was beloved by the nymph 
Galatea: Polyphemus, the Cyclops, jealous of him, crushed 
him under a huge rock. His blood gushing forth from 
under the rock was changed by the nymph into the river 
Acis or Acinius, at the foot of Mt. Aetna. (Ovid. Met. XIII. 
750, sqq,) 

9. The Simaethus, now the Giaretta^ on the E. coast, 
and at the foot of Mt. Aetna, formed the boundary between 
Leontini and Catana. 

10. ISTear Leontini was the Terias, now the Guara- 
lunga, 

11. The Anapus, now the Anapo, or Fiume di Sor- 
tino^ flowed into the sea S. of Syracuse through the 
marshes of Lysimelia. 

mountains 3 6. Where is Aetna, name derived from what, what legends connected 
with it? 7. What eruptions are mentioned by the ancients, and what is the form 
and height of the mountain, and the circumference and depth of its crater? 8. 
What sort of rivers in Sicily ? What legend connected with the Acis ? 9. Where 
was the Symaethus ? 10. Where was the Terias ? 11. Where was the Anapus ? 



ITALIA. 173 

12. The Cacyparis, now the Cassibili, also S. of Sy- 
racuse. 

13. The H el or us, now the AMsso, was on the E. 
coast, S. of Syracuse : at its mouth was the city of H el 6- 
rum. 

14. The Him era, now Mume JSalso, was one of the 
principal rivers in the S. of the island : it was at one time 
the boundary between the territories of the Carthaginians 
and the Syracusans : it receives near Enna the water of a 
salt spring, and hence has salt water as far as its mouth : 
hence also its modern name. 

15. The Halycus, now the J*latam, in the S., flowed 
into the sea near Heraclea Minoa. 

16. The Crimisus, or Crimissus, now the JBelUci 
destro^ in the W. falls into the Hypsas : on its banks Timo- 
leon defeated the Carthaginians, b. c. 339. 

IV. Hypsas was the name of two rivers in the S. : one 
between Selinus and Thermae Selinuntiae, and now the 
JBelliciy and the other near Agrigentum, now the Flume 
drago, 

SOIL AND PEODUCTIONS. 

18. The soil of Sicily was very fertile, and produced in 
antiquity an immense quantity of wheat, on which the 
population of Rome relied to a great extent for their sub- 
sistence. So celebrated was it even in early times on 
account of its corn, that it was represented as sacred to 
Demeter, (Ceres,) and as the favorite abode of this goddess. 
Hence it was in this island that her daughter Persephone 
was carried away by Pluto. Besides corn, the island pro- 
duced excellent wine, saffron, honey, almonds, and the 
other southern fruits. 

INHABITAIO'S. 

19. The first inhabitants of Sicily are said to have been 
the savage Cyclopes and Laestrygones ; but these are fab- 
ulous beings, and the first inhabitants mentioned in history 
are the Sicani or Siciili, who crossed over into the 
island from Italy. Some writers regard the Sicani and Si- 
culi as two distinct peoples, but without good reason. They 



12. Where was the Cacyparis 1 13. VSThere was the Helorus ? 14. Where waa 
the Himera, what at one time, what its nature helow Enna? 15. Where was the 
Halycua? 16. Where was the Crimisus, and. how noted in history? 17. WTiere 
Were the rivers Hypsas ? 18. What was the nature of the soil, and what the produc> 
tions of Sicily ? 19. Who were the first inhabitants of Sicily ? 20. By whom were 



174 ANCIENl' GEOGKAPHY. 

appear to have been a Celtic people, who, driven across the 
Alps by the Ligyes, or Ligures, settled in Latium, whence 
being again driven by the Aborigines assisted by Pelas- 
gians, they migrated to the S. of Italy, where they lived 
for a considerable time along with the Oenotrians, but 
at last crossed over to Sicily, to which they gave their 
name. 

20. They were subsequently followed, first by Cre- 
tans, under Minos, then by the Elymaei, a small band of 
fugitive Trojans, both these bodies of fugitive immigrants 
founding several important cities, but becoming speedily 
incorporated with the Siculi. The Phoenicians early 
formed settlements for the purposes of commerce, especially 
on the N. and I^. W. parts, but were soon compelled, by 
the encroaching Greeks, to confine themselves to Motya, 
Solus, and Panormus. 

21. The most important of all the immigrants into Sicily 
were the Greeks, who founded a number of important 
cities, which will be duly noticed. At a later time the Car- 
thaginians obtained a firm footing in Sicily, and, having 
made themselves masters of the W. part of the island, they 
were engaged in frequent wars with Syracuse and the other 
Greek cities. The struggle between the Carthaginians and 
Greeks continued, with a few interruptions, down to the 
1st Punic war; at the close of which (241) the Carthagi- 
nians were obliged to evacuate the island, the W. part of 
which now passed into the hands of the Romans, and was 
made a Roman province. The conquest of Syracuse by 
Marcellus (212) threw the whole island into the power of 
the Romans, who made it a province, administered by a 
praetor. Augustus founded colonies at several important 
cities. On the downfall of the Roman empire, Sicily formed 
part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths ; but it was taken 
from them by Belisarius in A. D. 536, and annexed to the 
Byzantine empire. It continued a province of this empire 
until 826, when it was conquered by the Saracens. 

CITIES OF SICILY. 

In enumerating the cities of Sicily, we follow the order 
of Sickler, and begin at the E. side, where we first find — 

22. M ess ana , now Messina^ on the N. E. on the straits 
(of Messina) separating Italy from this island, which are 

the Siculi followed ? 21. Who were the most important immigrants, and by whom 
were they followed ? 22. Where was Messana, what its original name, by whom 



ITALIA. 175 

here about 4 miles broad. The Romans called the town 
Messana, according to its. Doric pronunciation, but Messene 
{Mca-a-qv-rj) was its more usual name among the Greeks. It 
was originally a town of the Siceli, and was called Zancle, 
(ZayKA.77,) or a sickle, on account of the shape of its har- 
bor, which is formed by a singular curve of sand and shells. 
The first Greek colonists were, according to Thucydides, 
pirates from the Chalcidian town of Cumae in Italy, who 
were joined by Chalcidians from Euboea, and later by Chal- 
cidian colonists from Naxos in Sicily. 

23. Zancle soon became so powerful that it founded 
the town of Himera about b. c. 648. A short time before 
the 1st Punic war, it was taken by the Mamertini, for 
which reason it was afterwards captured by the Romans, 
and thereupon called Mamertina Civitas ; but its name 
of Messene it derived from Messenians who came from the 
Peloponnesus and settled here. 

24. Tauromenium, now Taormina^ on the E. coast, 
situated on Mt. Taurus, from which it derived its name, was 
founded b. c. 358 by Andromachus with the remains of the 
inhabitants of Naxos, whose town had been destroyed by 
Dionysius nearly fifty years before. 

25. Naxos, S. of Mt. Taurus, founded b. c. 735 by the 
Chalcidians of Euboea, was the first Greek colony estab- 
lished in the island. In 480 the town was taken by Diony- 
sius of Syracuse and destroyed. 

26. Cat ana, now Catania, between the rivers Acis 
and Amenanus, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, was founded b. c. 
730 by Chalcidians from IsTaxos. In b. c. 476 it was taken 
by Hiero I., who removed its inhabitants to Leontini, but 
soon after his death (467) they again obtained possession 
of their town. After experiencing sundry other reverses, 
it was colonized by Augustus with some veterans. It is 
now one of the most flourishing cities in Sicily. 

27. Leontini, now Lentini, about 5 miles from the sea, 
N". W. of Syracuse, was situated upon the small river Lissus. 
It was founded by Chalcidians from Naxos, b. c. 730, only 
6 years after the foundation of Naxos itself. 

28. The rich plains N. of the city, called Campi Laes- 



founded? 23. What evidence of its early power, and what was its later fate? 24, 
Where was Tauromenium, whence its name, founded when and by whom? 25. 
Where was Naxos, hy whom founded, when and by whom destroyed ? 26. Where 
was Catana, when and by whom founded, experienced what changes, is what 
now ? 27. Where was Leontini, where situated, founded by whom and when ? 



176 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

trygonii or Ijeontini^ were some of the most fertile in Sicily, 
and produced abundant crops of most excellent wheat. 

29. In consequence of its joining the Carthaginians it 
was taken and j^lundered by the Romans, under whose rule 
it sunk into insignificance. Gorgias was a native of Leon- 
tini. 

30. Syraciisae, (Si^paKovo-at,) Siracusa in Italian, Syr^a- 
cicse in English, the wealthiest and most poj^ulous town in 
Sicily, was situated on the S. part of the E. coast, 50 miles 
jN". of the promontory of Plemmyrium, and a little over a 
mile I^. E. of the mouth of the river Anapus, near the 
lake or marsh called Syraco, from which it derived its 
name. It was founded b. c. 734, one year after the founda- 
tion of ]N^axos, by a colony of Corinthians and other Dorians, 
led by Archias, the Corinthian, after whose two daughters, 
jSyra and Cossa, the city is said by come to have been 
named. 

31. Syracuse consisted of five distinct towns, each sur- 
rounded by separate walls. These were A,, Nasos, (Nijo-o?, 
Nacros,) the Island, also called Ortygia, an island of an 
oblong shape, about 2 miles in circumference, lying between 
the great harbor on the W. and the little harbor on the E. 
It was the portion of the city first built, and it contained 
the citadel or Acropolis, surrounded by double walls, which 
Timoleon caused to be destroyed. In this island were 
many temples, and also the celebrated fountain of Arethusa. 
It was originally separated from the mainland by a narrow 
channel, which was subsequently filled uj^ by a causeway ; 
but this causeAvay must at a still later time have been swept 
away, since we find in the Roman period that the island 
was connected with the mainland by means of a bridge. 
B., Achradina, occupying origmally the high ground of the 
peninsula IsT. of Ortygia, and surrounded on the IsT. and E. 
by the sea. This was the most strongly fortified and most 
beautiful part of the city, and contained the temple of Zeus 
Olympius. C, Tyche, named after the temple ofTvxr], or 
Fortune, was situated IST. W. of Achradina, and was the 
most populous part of the city, containing, besides the tem- 
ple of Fortune, the Gymnasium. D., ]!^eapolis, nearly S. 
W. of Achradina, was, as well as Tyche, at the time of the 
Athenian siege of Syracuse, only an unfortified suburb, and 

28. What plains near it, producing what? 29. Under Eoman rule, what be- 
came of it, whose birthplace was it ? 30. Where is Syracusae, when and 
by whom founded, whence deriving its name ? SI. Of what did Syracuse con- 



ITALIA. 177 

called Tcmenites, from having -vvithin it the statue and con- 
secrated ground of Apollo Temcnites. Neapolis contained 
the chief theatre of Syracuse, which was the largest in all 
Sicily, and many temples. E., Epipolae, a space of 
ground rising above the three quarters of Achradina, 
Tyclie, and Neapolis, which gradually diminislied in breadth 
as it rose higher, until it ended in a small conical mound. 
This rising ground was surrounded with strong walls by 
the elder Dionysius, and was thus included in Syracuse,- 
which now became one of the most strongly fortified cities 
of the ancient world, having a circumference of 180 Rtadia 
or upwards of 22 lioman miles ; and the entire population 
of the city is supposed to have amounted to 500,000 souls, 
at the time of its greatest prosperity. 

82. Syracuse had two harbors. The Great Harbor, still 
called Porto Maggiore^ is a splendid bay about 5 miles in 
circumference formed by the island Ortygia and the Prom. 
Plemmyrium. The Small Harbor, also called Laccius, 
lying between Ortygia and Achradina, was capacious 
enough to receive a large fleet of ships of war. 

83. There were several stone quarries, Lautumiae^ 
Lat'umiae, Jjatomiae^ in Syracuse, in which the unfortunate 
Athenian pi-isoners were confined. From them was taken 
the stone of which the city was built. On one side of 
these quarries is the remarkable excavation, called the Ear 
of Dionysius, in which it is said that this tyrant confined 
the persons whom he suspected, and that he was able from 
a little apartment above to overhear the conversation of his 
captives. This tale, however, is clearly an invention. 

34. A history of Syracuse must be sought for else- 
where ; Ave have only space to state that, when Hieronymus, 
tyrant of the city, espoused the side of the Carthaginians, 
a Roman army under Marcellus was sent against Syracuse ; 
and after a siege of two years, during which Archimedes, 
who was a native of Syracuse, assisted his fellow-citizens by 
the construction of various engines of war, the city was 
taken by Marcellus in 212. From this time Syracuse be-' 
came a town of the Roman province of Sicily. The modern 
city is confined to the island, the remaining quarters being 
now uninhabited, marked by only a few ruins, among which 



fiist? 32. How many harbors, liow situated, had Syracueo? 33. What quarries 
ill Syracuse, used for what, what story connected with them ? 34. When was 
Syracuse taken by the Romans, by what commander? What did it now 
become, and to what is the modern city confined? Whoso birthplace was Byra- 
8* 



178 AKCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

the most important are the remains of the great theatre, 
and of an amphitheatre of the Roman period. 

35. Helorus or Helorum, the ruins of which are 
called Muri Ucci^ was a very ancient city, S. of Syracuse, 
at the mouth of the river Helorus. Diod. Siculus describes 
the surrounding country as exceedingly beautiful. 

36. Camarina, the ruins of which are at Camarana^ 
on the S. coast, at the mouth of the Hipparis, was founded 
by Syracuse, b. c. 599. It was several times destroyed by 
Syracuse; and in the first Punic war it was taken by 
the Romans, and most of the inhabitants sold as slaves. 
Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient toT^m remain. In the 
neighborhood was a marsh, which the inhabitants drained 
contrary to the command of an oracle, and thus opened the 
way to their enemies to take the town ; hence arose the 
proverb, /xi) kIvu Ka/xaptVav, ne moveas Camarinam. 

37. Gel a, the ruins of which are near Terra Nuova^ 
also on the S. coast and on a river of the same name, 
{Fiume di Terra Niiova^ was founded by Rhodians from 
Lindos, and by Cretans, b. c. 690. It soon obtained great 
power and wealth, and in 582 it founded Agrigentum; 
which, however, became more powerful than the mother city. 

38. Like the other cities of Sicily, it was subject to 
tyrants, of whom the most important were Hippocrates, 
Gelon, and Hieron. Gelon transported half of its inhabit- 
ants to Syracuse : the place gradually fell into decay, and 
in the time of Augustus was no longer inhabited. The 
poet Aeschylus died here. IST. of Gela were the celebrated 
Campi Geloi, which produced rich crops of wheat. 

39. Agrigentum, by the Greeks called 'AKpaya?, in 
the S. a colony of Gela, about 2^ miles from the sea, was 
situated between the rivers Acragas (i*^^^^me di SanJBiagio) 
and Hypsas, (F. Drago) 

40. It was celebrated for its wealth and populousness, 
and till its destruction by the Carthaginians, (b. c. 405,) was 
one of the most splendid cities of the ancient world. It 
was the birthplace of Empedocles. 

41. It was founded by a Doric colony from Gela, about 
582 or 579 b. c, was under the government of the cruel 
tyrant Phalaris, (about 560,) and subsequently under that 

cuee? 35. Where was Helorus, its ruins how called? 36. Where was Camarina, 
and what were its vicissitudes ? 37. Where was Gela, by whom founded, and 
when ? It soon became, and did what ? 38. What were its rulers, which of these 
the most imporant, what became of the place, who died here ? 39. WTiere was 
Agrigentum ? 40. For what was it celebrated, it was whose birthplace ? 41. It was 



ITALIA. 179 

of Theron, (488-472,) whose praises are celebrated by- 
Pindar. 

42. After its destruction by the Carthaginians, it was 
rebuilt by Timoleon, but it never regained its former great- 
ness. After undergoing many vicissitudes it at length came 
into the power of the Romans, (210,) in whose hands it re- 
mained. There are still gigantic remains of the ancient 
city, especially of the Olympieum, or temple of the Olym- 
pian Zeus. 

43. Heraclea Minoa, of which the ruins are near 
Torre di Capo Bianco^ in the S., at the mouth of the 
Halycus, between Agrigentum and Selinus. According to 
tradition it was founded by Minos, when he pursued Daeda- 
lus to Sicily, and it may have been an ancient colony of 
Cretans. We know, however, that it was afterwards col- 
onized by the inhabitants of Selinus, and that its original 
name was Minoa^ which it continued to bear till about 
B. c. 500, when the town was taken by the Lacedaemonians 
under Euryleon, who changed its name into that of 
Heraclea ; but it continued to bear its ancient appellation 
as a surname to distinguish it from other places of the same 
name. It was colonized by the Romans, when they con- 
quered Sicily. 

44. Selinus, the ruins of which are near Castel vetrano^ 
one of the most important towns in the island, was situated 
upon a hill on the S. W. coast, and upon a river of the same 
name, now the Madiani. It was founded by the Dorians 
from Megara Hyblaea on the E. coast of the island, b. c. 628. 

45. It soon attained great prosperity ; but it was taken 
by the Carthaginians in 409, when most of its inhabitants 
were slain or sold as slaves, and the greater part of the city 
destroyed. The Carthaginians, however, allowed the in- 
habitants to return to Sehnus in the course of the same 
year, and it continued to be a place of secondary impor- 
tance till 249, when it was again destroyed by the Cartha- 
ginians, and its inhabitants transferred to Lilybaeum. Pass- 
ing on to the W. and N. coasts, we note, 

46. Lilybaeum, the site of which is now partly occu- 
pied by Marsala^ with an excellent harbor, was situated 
on a promontory of the same name, opposite to the Prom. 

founded by whom and when, and by whom governed? 42, After its destruction 
by the Carthaginians, by whom was it rebuilt, and what became of it afterwards, 
what are its remains ? 43. WTiere was Heraclea Minoa, said to have been founded 
by whom, by whom colonized, what is said of its name ? 44. What and where 
waa Selinus, and founded by whom and when ? 45. What vicissitudes did it pass 



180 ANCIENT GEOGEAPIiy. 

Hermaeiim or Mercurii, {G. JBon^ in Africa, the space 
between the two being the shortest distance between Sicily 
and Africa. 

47. The town ofLilybaeum was founded by the Cartha- 
ginians about B. c. 397, and w^as made the principal fortress 
of the Carthaginians in Sicily. It was surrounded by massive 
walls and by a trench 60 feet wide and 40 feet deep. 

48. Lilybaeum was besieged by the Romans in the 1st 
Punic war, but they were unable to take it, and they ob- 
tained possession of it only by the treaty of peace. Under 
the Romans it continued to be a place of importance. 

49. Moty a, an ancient town in the iN". W., situated on 
a small island {Isola di 3fezz6) f of a mile from the coast, 
with which it \vas connected by a mole, was founded by 
the Phoenicians. It possessed a good harbor, and was in 
early times one of the most flourishing cities of Sicily. 

50. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Cartha- 
gmians, was taken from them by Dionysius of Syracuse, 
and was finally captured by the Carthaginian general 
Himilco, who transplanted all its inhabitants to the town of 
Lilybaeum, which he had founded in its neighborhood, b. c. 
397. It now disajDpears from history. 

51. Drcpanum, now Trapani^ also Drop an a, more 
rarely Drcpane, in the N. W. corner of the island, so 
named from ApeTravoi/, " a sickle," because the land on 
which it was built was in the form of a sickle. It was 
founded by the Carthaginian Ilamilcar, at the commence- 
ment of the 1st Punic war, and was one of the chief naval 
stations of the Carthaginians. Under the Romans it was 
an unimportant commercial town. It was here that Anchi- 
ses died, according to Yirgil. 

52. Near Drepanum was Eryx, on the "W. slope of the 
mountain of the same name. It was destroyed by the 
Carthaguiians in the time of Pyrrhus ; was subsequently re- 
built ; but was again destroyed by the Carthaginians in the 
1st Punic war, and its inhabitants removed to Drepanum. 

53. On the summit of the mountain stood an ancient 
and celebrated temple of Aphrodite, said to have been 
built by Eryx, king of the Elymi, or, according to Virgil, 

through ? 46. Where -^-as Lilybaeiim, opposite what ? 47. It was founded by whom, 
was what, how fortified? 48. How did it come into the possession of the Eomans? 
49. Where was Motya, founded by whom, and possessing Avhat? 50. Through 
what changes did it pass ? 51. Where was Drepanum, why so called, founded by 
whom, and when, who died here? 52. Where was Ery.'^, and what vicissitudes 
did it pass through? 53. What stood on the Bunimit of Mt. Eryx, built by whom, 



ITAI.IA. 



181 



by Aeneas, but more probably by the Phoenicians, who 
introduced the worship of Aphrodite in Sicily. From 
this temple the goddess bore the surname Erycina, 
under which name her worship was introduced at Rome 
about the beginning of the 2d Punic war. At present there 
is standing on the summit of the mountain the remains of 
a castle, originally built by the Saracens. 

54. Segesta, the later Roman form of the town called 
by the Greeks Egesta or Aegesta, (in Virg. Acesia,) 
the ruins of which are near Alcamo, was situated near 
the coast, between Panormus and Drepanum. It is said to 
have been founded by the Trojans on two small rivers, to 
which they gave the names of Simois and Scamander ; 
hence the Romans made it a colony of Aeneas. One tradi- 
tion, indeed, ascribed to it a Greek origin ; but in later 
times it was never regarded as a Greek city. 

55. Its inhabitants were constantly engaged in hostili- 
ties with Selinus ; and it was at their solicitation that the 
Athenians embarked in their unfortunate expedition against 
Sicily. The town was taken by Agathocles, who destroyed 
or sold as slaves all its inhabitants, peopled the city with a 
body of deserters, and changed its name into that of Di- 
caeopolis ; but after the death of this tyrant, the remains 
of the ancient inhabitants returned to the city and resumed 
their former name. 

56. Panormus, that is "All-Port," (Ilavop/xo?,) or a 
place always fit for landing, now Palermo^ was an impor- 
tant town at the mouth of the river Orethus, was founded 
by the Phoenicians, and at a later time received its Greek 
name from its excellent harbor. 

57. From the Phoenicians it passed into the hands of 
the Carthaginians, in whose power it remained for a long 
time, and who made it one of the chief stations for their 
fleet. It was taken by the Romans in the 1st Punic war 
B. c. 254, and was subsequently made a Roman colony. 

58. Himera, a celebrated Greek city on the IST. coast, 
W. of the mouth of the river Himera, was founded by the 
Chalcidians of Zancle, b. c. 648, and afterwards received 
Dorian settlers, so that the inhabitants spoke a mixed 
dialect, partly Ionic, (Chalcidian,) partly Doric. 

the goddess how called, what is there now ? 54. Where was Segesta, said to have 
been founded by whom? 55. Its inhabitants engaged in what, and experienced 
vi-hat reverses, &c. ? 56. Wh«re was Panormus, why so called, founded by 
^>\hom ? 57. Panormus passed successively into the possession of whom ? CS. 



182 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

69. After many vicissitudes of peace and war, it was 
taken, b. c. 409, by Hannibal, the son of Gisgo, who, to 
revenge the great defeat which the Carthaginians had suf- 
fered before this town from Theron and Gelon of Syracuse, 
(480,) levelled it to the ground, and destroyed almost all 
the inhabitants. 

60. Him era was never rebuilt ; but on the opposite bank 
of the river Himera, the Carthaginians founded a new 
town, which, from a warm medicinal spring in its neigh- 
borhood, was called Thermae, now Zermini^ (ruins.) 
Here the remains of the unfortunate inhabitants of Himera 
were allowed to settle. The Romans, who highly prized 
the warm springs of Thermae, permitted the town to 
retain its own constitution, and Augustus made it a col- 
ony. The poet Stesichorus was born at the ancient Hi- 
mera and the tyrant Agathocles at Thermae. 

61. Tyndaris or Tyndarium, now Tindaro^ with a 
good harbor, a httle "W. of Messana, near the promontory 
of the same name, was founded by the elder Dionysius, 
B. c. 396, and soon became an important place. It was the 
headquarters of Agrippa, the general of Octa\dan, in the 
war against Sex. Pompey. The greater part of the town 
was subsequently destroyed by an inundation of the sea. 

62. Mylae, now JSIilazzo^ on a promontory running 
out far into the sea, with a harbor and citadel, on the E. 
part of the N". coast of the island, was founded by Zancle, 
and continued subject to the latter city. It was off Mylae 
that Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex. Pompeius, b. c. 36. 

63. Aetna, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on a site now 
called Castro^ on the road to Catana, and formerly called 
Inessa or lunessa, was founded b. c. 461, by the inhabitants 
of Catana, who had been expelled from their own town by 
the SicuH. They gave the name of Aetna to Inessa, be- 
cause theii- own toT\Ti Catana had been called Aetna by 
Hiero I. 

64. Hybla Major, on a hill abounding in flowers and 
bees, just S. of Mt. Aetna, and on the river Simaethus, 
was originally a town of the Siculi. On its site is now Pa- 



Where was Himera, founded by whom, received settlers whence, with what results ? 
59. What became of Himera ? 60. WTiat town was now built in its neighborhood, 
how treated bj- theEomaDS : who was born at Himera, and who at Thermae ? 61. 
Where was Tyndaris, founded by whom, headquarters of whom ? 62. Where 
was Mylae, by whom founded, how noted in history? 63. Where was Aetna, 
founded when and by whom, name changed into what, and for what reason ? 64. 
WTiere was Hybla Major ? What other places of the same name ? 65. Where 



ITALIA. 183 

temo. Two other towns of the same name were : — 1. 
H. Minor, afterwards called Megara. 2. H. Heraea, 
in the S. on the road from Syracuse to Agrigentum. It 
is doubtful from which of the three places the Hyblaean 
honey came, so frequently mentioned by the poets. 

65. Agyrium, on the Cymosorus, IST. W. of Centu- 
ripae and N, E. of Enna, was the birthplace of the his- 
torian Diodorus, (Siculus.) 

66. Centuripae, now CentorM,an ancient town of the 
Siculi, at the foot of Mt. Aetna, on the road from Cat ana 
to Panormus, and not far from the Symaethus : in its 
neighborhood a great quantity of corn was grown, and it 
became under the Romans one of the most flourishing 
cities in the island. 

67. Enna or Henna, now Castro Giovanni^ an an- 
cient and fortified town of the Siculi, on the road from 
Catana to Agrigentum, said to be the centre of the island, 
was surrounded by fertile plains, which bore large crops 
of wheat : it was one of the chief seats of the worship of 
Demeter, (Ceres,) and possessed a celebrated temple of 
this goddess. According to a later tradition, it was in a 
flowery meadow in the neighborhood of Enna that Pluto 
carried off Proserpine, and the cave was shown through 
which the god passed, as he carried off his prize. 

68. Palica, near Mt. Aetna, and noted chiefly for the 
two sulphureous fountains in its neighborhood, called Deil- 
loi, or brothers of the Palici, at which solemn oaths were 
taken. The last 6 towns (63-68) were in the interior. A 
great number more were m the island, of greater or less 
importance : we have given all that are deserving of par- 
ticular notice. 

£.— Sardinia. 

NAMES, ETC, 

1. On account of their proximity to the Italian coast, 
we here reckon Sardinia and Corsica among the islands 
of Italy. The former of these, called Ichnusa, San- 
daliotis, Sardo, and finally Sardinia, is in shape in the 
form of a parallelogram, upwards of 140 nautical miles in 

•was Agyrium, noted as the 'birthplace of whom? 66. Where was Centuripae, 
how noted? 67. Where was Enna, surrounded by what, noted for whose 
worship, what legend connected with it ? 68. Where was Palica, and for what 
noted? 

1. What were the names of Sardinia, what its shape, dimensions, comparative 



18i ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

longtli from N. to S. with an average breadth of 60. The 
ancients regarded it as the largest of the Mediterranean 
islands, and the correctness of this opinion has been con- 
lirnied by actual admeasurement, from which it appears 
that Sardinia is a little larger than Sicily. Sardinia lies in 
almost a central position between Spain, Gaul, Italy, and 
Africa. The ancients derived its name from Sardus, a son 
of Hercules, who was worshipped in the island under the 
name of Sardus pater. The Greeks called it Ichnusa^ 
^Ixvovaa^ from its resemblance to the print of a foot, and 
BandaliotiSy (^avSa/Ytwrts,) from its likeness to a sandal. 

MOTJXTiUXS, ETC. 

2. A chain of mountains runs along the whole E. side 
of the Island, from IS', to S. occupying about one-third of its 
surface. These mountains were called by the ancients In- 
sani Montes, {Monti di Lwibara^ a name which they 
probably derived from their wild and savage appearance, and 
from their being the haunt of numerous robbers. In the 
"W. and S. parts of Sardinia, there are numerous plains 
intersected by ranges of smaller hiUs; but this part of the' 
island was in antiquity, as in the present day, exceedingly 
unhealthy. 

PEOMONTOKIES. 

3. The jDromontories were: A. In the N. — 1, Ereban- 
tium P., now Capo delta Testa ; 2, Ursi P., now Capo 
del Orso ; 3, Columbarium P , now Capo Flgari. B. 
In the E. — 1, CuniculariumP., now Ca2)o di Pida^ with 
the Portus Herculis ; 2, Cart^litanum P., now C. Car- 
honara. C. In the W. — 1, Gorditanum P., now Capo 
Falcone; 2, Hermaeum P., now Capo deUa Caccia ; 3, 
Crassum P., now Capo di JPecora ; 4, Sulcense or 
Sulcenae P., now Punta Sperone. 

ErVERS AND TOWNS. 

4. The principal rivers were the Termus, now ^rmo, 
in the N. ; the Thyrsus, {Oristano^) on the W. ; the 
Flumen Sacrum, \Uras^ and the SaejDrus, (i^/i<me?i^05c>,) 
on the E. 

5. The chief towns in the island were ; on the IST. coast, 
Tibilla {Porte Polio) and Turris Libyssonis, {Por- 

Bize, what the derivation of its names? 2. What mountains in Sardinia, and 
■what the general face of the comitry? 3. What were the promontories of S. ? 
4. What were the principal rivers? 5. What were the chief towns of Sardinia? 



ITALIA. 185 

to Torres;) on the S. coast, Sulci {Bari) and Car alls, 
( Cagliari^ the capital and residence of the Roman Praetor, 
founded by the Carthaginians, and termed, by Florus '' TIrhs 
%irhi%mi p"^ on the E. coast, Olbia, {Terranova ;) and in the 
interior, Cornus, now Gorneto^ or Sindia^ according to 
Long, and N'ora, Nurri. 

SOIL AND PEODUCTIONS. 

6. Sardinia was very fertile, but was not extensively cul- 
tivated, in consequence of the uncivilized character of its 
Inhabitants. Still the plains in the W. and S. parts of the 
island produced a great quantity of corn, of which the 
greater part was exported to Rome every year. Among 
the products of the island one of the most celebrated was 
the Sardonioa herba, a poisonous plant, from the reputed 
effects of which the phrase risus Sardonicus is said to have 
arisen. It. is quite likely that this whole tale arose from 
a piece of bad etymology. Another of the principal 
products was wool. Sardinia also contained a large 
quantity of the precious metals, especially silver, the mines 
of which were worked in antiquity to a great extent. 
There were likewise numerous mineral springs ; and large 
quantities of salt were manufactured on the W. and S. 
coasts. 

INHABITANTS. 

■7. The population of Sardinia was of a very mixed kind: 
Phoenicians, Tyrrhenians, and Carthaginians settled in the 
island at different periods. It is said that Greek colonies 
were also established here, but the accounts are doubtful. 
All prior names prevailing here were subsequently merged 
under the general appellation of Sardi. These Sardi are 
described as a rude and savage people addicted to thievery 
and lying. Rome took possession of the island, b. c, 238, 
but the inhabitants of the mountains in the E. side of the 
island were never completely subdued, and gave trouble to 
the Romans in the time of Tiberius. In the 5th century 
the Vandals took possession of the island. 

8. Sardinia was divided from Corsica by a strait called 
Fossa orTaphros, about 7^ miles wide, and now called 
Strada di San Bonifacio. 

6 .What was the nature of the soil, and what the productions of S. ? 7. How was 
the population of S. composed ? 8. What divided S. from Corsica? 



186 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY 

P. — Corsica. 

NAMES, ETC. 

1. According to Strabo the Romans gave the name of 
Corsica to the island which the Greeks called Kvpvos or 
Kopo-19. It is supposed to be indebted for its name to its 
general resemblance to a horn, Kipas. Cornu. 

2. The ancients exaggerated, for the most part, the size 
of the island : its greatest length is 116 miles, and its great- 
est breadth about 51. It is mountainous, and was not much 
cultivated in antiquity. 

3. A range of mountains, called Aureus Mons, run- 
ning from S. to ISr., separates it into two parts, of which the 
E. half was more cultivated, while the W. half was covered 
almost entirely with wood. In the W. was Mons Rhoetius, 

TO 'FoLTLOV "OpOS. 

4. The promontories were : A. In the IST. ; Sacrum Pr., 
( C. Corso.) B. In the W. ; 1, Attium Pr . , (G. Addiazzo;) 
2, Yiriballum, ((7. Calvi ;) 3, Rhium, ( (7. c^i i^?20 y) 4, 
Marianum, (Capo di Gasa Barharica.) C. In the E. ; Ya- 
gum, {G. di JBrigalmo.) 

5. The rivers of Corsica were : 1, The Tavola, (Golo,) 
the largest on the E. side ; 2, Rhotanus, {Tavig?iano,) in 
the E. ; 3, Sacer, (Orbo,) in the E. ; 4, Ticarius, {Val- 
inco;) 5, Locras, (Talavo,) both on the W. side. 

6. Honey and wax were the principal productions of the 
island ; but the honey had a bitter taste, from the yew 
trees with which the island abounded. 

7. The cities of Corsica were : A. On the E. side; 1, Clu- 
nium, now y8. Gatharina ; 2, Mantinorum Oppidum, 
near the site of which is the modern ^astia j 3, Mariana 
Co Ionia: this was a colony of C. Marius, of which the 
earlier name was l^icae a; 4, Aleria Colonia, [Aleria/) 
5, Favoni Portus, {Porto Favo7ie ;) 6, Syracusanus 
Port us, {Porto Veechio.) B. On the W. side ; 1, Centu- 
rinum, {Genturi ;) 2, Canelata, {Gonari ;) 3, Titianns 
Portus, (Porto Tiziano ;) 4, Fie aria Portus, (Figari.) 
C. In the interior ; 1, Palanta, (Polagna f) 2, Tarabeno- 
rum Yicus, (Yico.) 

8. The inhabitants were a rude mountain race, addicted 

1. Corsica was how called by the Greeks, probable orighi of the name? 2. 
What are the dimensions of the island? What is the face of the country? 3. 
What mountains were here? 4. What promontories on Corsica? 5. What 
rivers in C, ? 6. What were the productions of C. 7. What cities in C. ? 8. 



ITALIA. 187 

to robbery, and paying little attention to agriculture. Even 
in the time of the Roman empire their character had not 
much improved, as we see from the description of Seneca, 
who was banished to this island by Claudius, a. d. 41. The 
most ancient inhabitants appear to have been Iberians ; but 
in early times Ligurians, Tyrrhenians, Carthaginians, and 
even Greeks settled in the island. It was subject to the 
Carthaginians at the commencement of the 1st Punic war, 
but soon afterwards passed into the hands of the Romans, 
and subsequently formed a part of the Roman province of 
Sardinia. 

G. — Aeoliae Insulae. 

1. The Aeoliae Insulae, now the Lipari Islands^ 
are a group IST. E. of Sicily, where, according to the poets, 
Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned. Homer (Od. X. 1) 
mentions only one Aeolian island, and Virgil (Aen. I. 52) 
accordingly speaks of only one Aeolia, (sc. insula,) where 
Aeolus reigned, supposed to be Strongyle or Lipara. These 
islands were also called JSephaestlddes or T^fca/zme, because 
Hephaestus or Vulcan was supposed to have his workshop 
in one of them called Hiera, (Virg. Aen. VIII. 416 sqq.) 
They were also named Liparenses^ from Lipara, the largest 
of them. 

2. The names of these islands were, Lipara, [Lipari^) 
Hiera, {Yolcano ;) Strongyle, (StromboU,) called the 
light-house of the Mediterranean, because it is a constantly 
active volcano; Phoenicusa, {Feliciidi;) Ericusa, [AU- 
cudi;) Euonymus, {Panaria ;) Didyme, {Salina ;) Hi- 
c e s i a , {Lisca Bianca ;) Basilidia, {Basilizzo ;) O s t e o - 
des, (Ustica.) 

H. — Aegates Insulae. 

1. The Aegates Insulae, (from At^, aiyos, "a goat,") 
the goat islands, were three islands off the W. coast of Sici- 
ly, between Drepanum and Lilybaeum, near which the 
Romans gained a naval victory over the Carthaginians, and 
thus brought the 1st Punic war to an end, b. c. 241. The 
islands were, Aegusa {Alyova-cra) or Capraria, (i^?;z^- 
?iana ;) Phorbantia, {Levanzo^) and Hiera, (Jfareizmo.) 

What was the character of the inhabitants of C. ? Who were the most ancient 
inhabitants? 

1. Where were the Aeoliae Insulae, having what other names, and bearing 
these names from what ? 2. What were the uames of these islands ? 

1. What and where were the Aegates Insulae, how noted in history, and what 
were their names ? 



188 AI^CIENT GEOGEAPHY. 



I.— MeUta. 

1. M e lit a or Mel it e, now Malta^ is situated 58 miles 
from the nearest point of Sicily, and 179 miles from the 
nearest point of Africa. Its greatest length is 17 miles, 
and its greatest breadth 9 miles. The island was first colo- 
nized by the Phoenicians, who nsed it as a place of refuge 
for their ships, on account of its excellent harbors. 

2. It afterwards passed uito the hands of the Carthagin- 
ians, but was taken possession of by the Romans in the 
2d Punic war, and annexed to the province of Sicily. The 
Romans, however, appear to have neglected the island, and 
it is mentioned by Cicero as a frequent resort of pirates. 

3. Mehta contained a town of the same name founded 
by the Carthaginians, and two celebrated temples, one of 
Juno, on a promontory near the town, and another of Her- 
cules in the S. E. of the island. It is celebrated in sacred 
history as the island on which the apostle Paul was ship- 
wrecked, though some writers erroneously supj^ose that 
the apostle was shipwrecked on the island of the same 
name off the lUyrian coast. 

4. The inhabitants manufactured fine cloth, which was 
in much request at Rome. They also exported a con- 
siderable quantity of honey ; and from this island, accord- 
ing to some authorities, came the Catufi Melitaei, the 
favorite lapdogs of the Roman ladies. 

5. I^^ear Mehta was Gaulos now Gozzo^ another island 
of some note. 

1. Where is Melita, what are its dimensions, and by whom first colonized? 2. 
Into what other hands did it subsequently pass ? 3. 'What town and temples in 
Melita? The island noted for what in sacred history ? 4. What manufactures 
and exports of Melita are to be noted ? 5, Wiat other island near Melita ? 



CHAPTER III. 
ASIA. 

NAME AND EXTENT. 

1. The name of Asia, in Greek "Aata, occurs first in 
Homer's Iliad, II. 461 : "'Ao-to) iv Act/xcoi/i," where, however, 
it denotes only a large swamp or meadow situate on the 
river Cayster in Lydia. 

2. Herodotus states, TV. 45, that this division of the 
world, as known to the ancients, received its name from 
"Ao-ta, the wife of Prometheus. 

8. It is probable, however, that the Greek name "Ao-ta 
liad its origin in the Phoenician verb Assass, " to shine, to 
be splendid, or mighty " — still found in the Hebrew (tt^) 
and in the Arabic, from whicli comes tls>, " brightness, 
splendor," and that thus, in the Geograi)hy of the Phoeni- 
cians, Asia originally denoted the bright or shining land, 
the land of the rising sun, or of the East, which Homer 
already describes as tlie land in the region of day, Trpos 
*HO T 'IltAioi/ Tc, " tovKirds the morning-red and rising sun,''"' 
as opposed to tJie land towards the West and North, the 
land of darkness, 'Dr^,,r=Mur ope, the landTrpos tJ)(^ov. — Asia, 
the shining land, or land of light in the E., stood opposed 
to Europa, the land of gloom or darkness, in the W. 
Thus in consequence of the relative position of the two 
continents the earliest Phoenician geography appears to 
have given each its name. 

4. We find that as early as the time of Herodotus the 
Greeks regarded the name, Asia, as comprehending a great 
extent of country, in fact, a distinct division of what they 
looked upon as the world. In the later geography of the 

1. Whoro docs the name of Asia firet occur, denoting what? 2. What derivation 
of the name in driven liy IIcrodotuH ? 3. WJuit ia probably the truo derivation of 
tlio nanic % 4. What, according to the aucicnts, were the extent and houndarics 



190 ANCIENT GEOGKAPIIY. 

Romans this name denoted at first only a province, Asia, in 
Asia Minor, and its application to the interior of the conti- 
nent proceeded gradually, in proportion as the geographical 
knowledge of the liomans extended farther eastward. In 
the time of Pomponius Mela, (Roman geographer — flour- 
ished probably from a. d. 41 to 54,) of Strabo and Ptolemy, 
the boundaries of Asia were given as the Mare Scythicum, 
IIoj/To? '^Kv0tK6<;, i. e. the Euxine, on the N. ; the Oceanus 
EouSj or Eastern Ocean, on the E. ; the Oceanus Indicus, or 
Indian Ocean, on the S. ; and the Palus Maeotis, the Pontus 
Euxinus, the Propontis, and the Hellespont on the W. or 
European side, and the Nile, as separating it from Africa. 
In view of the inaccuracy of the northern boundary as here 
given, it is necessary to observe, that both Europe and 
Asia were supposed to be bounded in the IsT. by an ocean 
which was called Septentrionalis, or Glaciahs, but of which 
there was no actual knowledge. 

5. The most general division of Asia was into two 
parts, which were different at different times, and known 
by different names. To the earliest Greek colonists, the 
river Halys, the E. boundary of the Lydian kingdom, 
formed a natural division between Upper and LoicerAsia; 
and afterwards the Euphrates was adopted as a more 
natural boundary. Another division was made by the 
Taurus into Asia intra Taurum^ ('A. ei/ros tov lavpov^) i. e. 
the part of A. K. and N. W. of the Taurus, and A. extra 
Taurum^ ('A. cktos tov Tavpov,) all the rest of the continent. 
The division ultimately adopted, but apparently not till the 
fourth century of our era, was that of A. Major and A. 
3fi7ior, of which the former is most conveniently divided 
into 1, Asia Septenirlooialis or JVorthern Asia; 2, into 
Asia Orientalis, or l^astern Asia ; and 3, into Asia Meri- 
dionalis or Southern Asia. We proceed now at once to 
the consideration of that division which is by far the most 
interesting and important. 

of Asia? 5. How was Asia divided by tho ancients, and what is the most con- 
venient division ? 



ASIA MINOK. 191 

SECTION I. 
ASIA MINOR. 

1. Asia Minor, ('Ao-ta rj fxiKpa^) now called Anatolia^ 
was the peninsula on the extreme W. of Asia, bounded on 
the N. by the Propontis and the Pontus Euxinus ; on 
the IST. W. by the Hellespont ; on the E. by the mountains 
on the W. of the npper course of the Euphrates ; on the S. 
E. by Syria, or Amanus Mons ; on the S. by the Mediter- 
ranean, and on the W. by the Aegaean : in other words, it 
consisted of that collection of provinces situated in the 
western peninsula of Asia, between the Euxine and the 
Mediterranean, which, though contiguous in point of posi- 
tion, remained politically distinct, and did not therefore 
receive any collective name in classical literature. 

2. It has already been said that the name, Asia Minor, 
did not come into use until the fourth century. It occurs 
first in Lib. I. c. 2 of the work of Paulus Orosius, entitled 
" Historiarum adversus Paganos Libri VII.," in the follow- 
ing passage : " Asia Regio, vel ut 'proprie dicam^ Asia 
Minor, absque orientali parte^ quae ad Gappadociam 
Syriamque progreditur^ icndiqiie circumdata estonariy' a 
Steptentrione Ponto JEuxino^ ah occasu JPropontide atque 
Hellesponto^ a meridie mari nostra.'^'' 

3. The principal divisions of Asia Minor have been 
variously given : we prefer that into fourteen provinces, as 
follows: on the W". coast, ilfys^a, Lydia^ and Carta : on 
the iN". coast, JBithynia^ JPaphlagonia^ and Pontus : on the S. 
Juycia^ Pisidia^ Pamphylia^ and Gilicia : in the interior, 
Phrygia^ Galatia^ Lycaonia^ and Gappadoeia. 

4. Asia Minor was for the most part a fertile country, 
intersected with mountains and rivers, abounding in mine- 
rals, possessing excellent harbors, and peopled, from the 
earliest known period, by a variety of tribes from Asia and 
from Europe. 

5. The range of Taurus divides it into two unequal 
parts, traversing its whole length from W. to E., and efiect- 

1. What is meant l)y Asia Minor, and what were its boundaries ? 2. Where doea 
the name of Asia Minor first occur ? 3. Wliat were the chief divisions or prov- 
inces of Asia Minor ? 4. What v/as tho general character of the country ? 5. What 



192 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

ually shutting off the southern provinces of Lycia, Pam- 
phylia, and Cilicia from their northern neighbors ; the most 
important pass across it was situated in the latter province, 
north of Tarsus ; it led through a narrow gorge at which 
defences were erected, and hence called Portae Ciliciae, the 
Cilician Gates, 

6. The interior of Asia Minor consists of a highly elevat- 
ed plateau, sloping down gradually from Mt. Taurus to the 
Euxine sea : the climate is there less genial and the soil 
less productive than in the maritime districts ; but the 
plains yield extensive and rich pasture grounds for sheep. 
This plateau is bounded eastward by the lofty range of 
Antitaurus. ISTumerous chains run parallel to the coast of 
the Euxine, and give the northern region a mountainous 
character. The most important were — Paryadres and 
Scoedisus in the province of Pontus: Olympus, on the 
borders of Bithynia and Galatia ; and another range of the 
same name between Bithynia and Mysia. Towards the 
Aegaean the plain breaks up into ridges of inferior height 
opening to the sea, such as Temnus in Mysia, Tmolus in 
Lydia, and Messogis, between Lydia and Caria. 

For the principal rivers of Asia Minor the student is re- 
ferred to the several provinces to which they respectively 
belong. 

1. Mysia, (77 Mro-ta), called also the Asiatic Mysia, in 
contradistinction to Moesia on the banks of the Danube, 
meant originally the land of the Mysi, one of the Thracian 
peoples who seem to have crossed over from Europe into 
Asia Minor, before recorded history begins ; but in the 
usual division of Asia Minor, as settled imder Augustus, it 
occupied the whole of the N". W. corner of the peninsula, 
between the Hellespont on the IST. W. ; the Propontis on 
the ^N". ; the river Rhyndacus and Mt. Olympus on the E., 
which divided it from Bithynia ; Phrygia on the S. E. ; Mt. 
Temnus and an imaginary line drawn from Temnus to the 
S. side of the Elaitic gulf on the S. where it bordered upon 
Lydia ; and the Aegaean sea on the W. 

2. Mysia was subdivided into five parts: 1, Mysia 
Minor, along the IsT. coast; 2, Mysia Major, the S. E. 

mountain chain diyides it? 6. Wliat is the face of the countiy in the inte 
rior, and what important mountain-chains are found there 1 , 

1. How was Mysia bounded? 2. WTiat were the subdivisions of Mj'sia? 



ASIA MINOE. 193 

inland region, with a small portion of tlie coast between 
the Troad and the Aeolic settlements about the Elaitic gulf; 
3, Troas, the N". W. angle, between the Aegean and 
Hellespont and the S. coast along the foot of Ida; 4, 
Aeolis or Aeolia, the S. part of the W. coast, around 
the Elaitie gulf, where the chief cities of the Aeolian con- 
federacy were planted ; but applied in a wider sense to the 
"W. coast in general; and 5, Teuthrania, the S. W. 
angle, between Temnus and the borders of Lydia : this part 
was also called Pergamene, from the celebrated city of 
Pergamus, which stood in it. 

3. The country was for the most part mountainous, its 
chief chains being those of Ida, Olympus, and Temnus, 
which are terminal branches of the N. W, part of the 
Taurus chain, and the union of which forms the elevated 
land of S. E. Mysia. 

4. The prolongations of these mountains into the sea form 
several important bays and capes; namely, among the 
former, the great gulf ofAdramyttium, Adramytti^ which 
cuts offLesbos from the continent ; and the Sinus Elaiticus, 
€1: of Chandeli / and, among the later, Sigeum, C. Teni- 
cheri, and Lectum, O. JBaha^ at the N. W. and S. W. ex- 
tremities of the Troad, and Cane, G. Co?om, and Hydria, 
FoJcia^ the IST. and S. headlands of the Elaitic gulf. 

5. The rivers of Mysia are numerous ; some of them 
considerable, in proportion to the size of the country, and 
some of first rate importance in history and poetry. The 
chief of them, beginning on the E., were Rhyndacus, 
Mualitsch^ and Macostus, Suserlu Tchai^ Tarsius, ICara 
Dere /Su, Aesepus, Or aniens, sK'odscha Tchai, Rho- 
dius, Simois, Mendere Tchai, and Scamander, J3u- 
narbashi Tchai Satnois, Even us, and Caicus, BaTchir 
Tchai. On the banks of the Granicus, which flows into the 
Propontis, Alexander gained his first victory over Darius, 
B. c. 334, 

CHIEF tow:jts. 

6. Cyzicus, now JBal £^iz or Chizico, (ruins,) one of 
the most ancient and powerful of the Greek cities in Asia 
Minor, stood upon an island of the same name in the Pro- 
pontis, {Sea of Marmara.) This island, the earlier name 
of which was Arcton-nesus, ("ApKTcov vtJo-o?,) lay close to the 

3. What was the face of the country, and -what were the chief mountain chains ? 4. 
What hays and capes on the coast of Myeia ? 5. What rivers in Mysia? 6. What 
9 



194 ANCIENT GE0C4KAPnY. 

snore of Mysia, to which it was united by two bridges, and 
afterwards, under Alexander the Great, by a mole, which 
has accumulated to a considerable isthmus. The city of 
Cyzicus stood on the S. side of the island, at the IST. end of 
the isthmus, on each side of which it had a port, the one 
called Chytus, the other Panormus. 

T. Cyzicus was one of the finest cities of the ancient 
world, for the beauty of its situation and the magnificence 
of its buildings : it possessed an extensive commerce, and 
was celebrated for the excellence of its laws and govern- 
ment. Its staters were among the most esteemed gold 
coins current in Greece. Its celebrated resistance against 
Mithridates, when he besieged it by sea and land, (b. c. 75,) 
was of great service to the Romans, and obtained for it the 
rank of a "libera civitas," which it lost again under 
Tiberius. Under Constantino it became the chief city of 
the new j)rovince of Hellespontus. 

8. Ilium or Troja was in the territory called Troas, 
which, as said before, formed the N". "W. part of Mysia. If 
the Ilium of Homer -had any real existence, it was most 
probably situated in the plain traversed by the united 
stream formed by the junction of the Scamander and the 
Simois, known as the plain of Troy. It was probably in 
the upper part of this plain, on a moderate elevation at the 
foot of Mt. Ida, whilst its citadel, called Pergama, occupied 
a loftier height, almost separated from the city by a ravine, 
and nearly surrounded by the Scamander. This city seems 
never to have been restored after its destruction by the 
Greeks. 

9. The Aeolian colonists subsequently built a new city, 
on the site, as they doubtless believed, of the old one, but 
really much lower down the plain ; and this city is the 
Troja, or Ilium Yetus, of most of the ancient writers. 

10. After the time of Alexander, Ilium Yetus declined, 
and a new city was built, still further down the plain, be- 
low the confluence of the Simois and the Scamander, and 
near the Hellespont, and this was called Ilium ISTovum. 
Under the Romans, this city was honored with various 
immunities, as the only existing representative of the an- 
cient Ilium. Its substantial importance, however, was 
entirely eclipsed by that of Alexandria Troas. 

and Tvliere was Cyzicus ? V. For what was Cyzicus noted ? 8. Where was Ilium or 
Troja ? 9. What and where was Ilium Vetus ? 10. What was the fate of this 
city, and what and where was Ilium Novum?* 11. Where was Alexandria Troas, 



ASIA MINOK. 195 

11. Alexandria Troas, also, as in the Acts of the 
Apostles, simply called Troas, now EsMstamhoul^ i. e., 
the Old City^ on the sea-coast, S. W. of Troy, was en- 
larged by Antigonus, hence called Antigonia, but after- 
wards it resumed its first name. It flourished greatly, 
both under the Greeks and the Romans ; it was made a 
colonia ; and both Julius Caesar and Constantiae thought 
of establishing the seat of empire in it. 

12. Pergamon or Pergamum, Pergamos or Per- 
g am us, the ruins of which still bear the name of Bergama 
or JPergamo, the capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, and 
afterwards of the Roman province of Asia, was situated in 
the district of S. Mysia, called Teuthrania, in one of the 
most beautiful and fertile valleys in the world. It stood on 
the J^. bank of the river Caicus, at a spot where that river 
receives the united waters of two small tributaries, the Seli- 
nus, which flowed through the city, and the Cetius, which 
washed its walls. The navigable river Caicus connected 
it with the sea, at the Elaitic gulf, from which its distance 
was somewhat less than 20 miles. It was built at the foot, 
and at the lowest slopes, of two steep hills, on one of which 
the ruins of the Acropolis are still visible, and in the plain 
below are the remains of the AsclejDieum and other tem- 
ples of the stadium, the theatre, and the amphitheatre, 
and of other buildings. 

13. The kingdom of Pergamus, which began upon the 
death of Seleucus, b. c. 280, by Philetaerus establishing 
himself as an independent ruler, reached its greatest ex- 
tent after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by the Ro- 
mans, in B. c. 190, when the Romans bestowed upon Eu- 
menes IT. the whole of Mysia, Lydia, both Phrygias, Ly- 
caonia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. It was under the same 
king that Pergamus reached the height of its splendor, and 
that the celebrated library was founded, which for a long 
time rivalled that of Alexandria, and the formation of 
which occasioned the invention of parchment, Chartae 
Pergamenae. This library was afterwards united to that 
of Alexandria, having been presented by Antony to Cleo- 
patra. During its existence at Pergamus it formed the 
centre of a great school of literature, which rivalled that 
of Alexandria. 



and how noted? 12. Wiei'e was Pergamum. or Pergamus, and how situated? 
13. W'lien did Pergamus . reach the height of its splendor, and for what is it 



196 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

14. The city was an early seat of Christianity, and is 
one of the Seven Churches of Asia, to whom the apocalyp- 
tic epistles are addressed, 

15. Abydos,in the Troad, on the narrowest part of the 
Hellespont, was a Milesian colony. It was nearly opposite 
to Sestos, but a little lower down the stream. The bridge 
of boats which Xerxes constructed over the Hellespont, 
B. c. 480, commenced a little higher up than Abydos, and 
touched the European shore between Sestos and Madj^tus. 
The site of Abydos is a little 'N. of Sultania or the old 
castle of Asia, which is opposite to the old castle of Europe. 

16. Scepsis, now ^ski- ZJpshi or JEJsJci-jShupshe, (ruins,) 
was in the interior of the Troad, S. E. of Alexandria, in the 
mountains of Ida. It is celebrated in literary history as 
the place where certain MSS. of Aristotle and Theophras- 
tus were buried, to prevent their transference to Pergamus. 
When dug up again, they were found nearly destroyed by 
mould and worms, and in this condition they were removed 
by Sulla to Athens. The philosopher Metrodorus and the 
grammarian Demetrius were natives of Scepsis. 

17. Lampsacus, a colony of the Phocaeans, and an 
important city on the coast of the Hellespont, possessed a 
good harbor. It was celebrated for its wine ; and hence it 
was one of the cities assigned by Xerxes to Themistocles 
for his maintenance. It was the chief seat of the worship 
of Priaj^us, and the birthj^lace of the historian Charon, the 
philosopher Adimantus, and the rhetorician Anaximenes, 

18. Other places, of more or less note, in Mysia, were : — 
1, Oji the shore of the JPropontis^' Priapus, Harpagium, 
Zelia, Memnonis Tumulus, Placia ; 2, In Troas : Dardanus, 
Gergis, Palaescepsis, Sigaeum, Chrysa, Halesium, Assus, 
Gargara, Antandrus, CiUa, Adramyttium, Thebe ; 3, 0^^ 
the shore of the Hellespont : Linum, Pityea, Parium, Per 
cote, Arisbe. 

1 9. The northwestern boundary of Mysia is the H e 11 e s - 
J) on t us, now Straits of the Dardanelles or of Gallipoli^ 
the long narrow strait connecting the Propontis with the 
Aegaean sea, and through which the waters of the Pontus 
Euxinus discharge themselves into the Mediterranean in 
a constant current. The length of the strait is about 50 

famous? 14. How is Pergamus noted in ecclesiastical history? 15. Where was 
Abydos, and how noted in history? 16. Where was Scepsis, how famed in literary 
history, and noted as the birthplace of whom ? 17. Where and what was Lamp- 
sacus, and for what celebrated? Birthplace of whom? 18. What other note- 
worthy places in Mysia ? 19. Where and what was the Hellespont, how noted, 



ASIA MINOE. 197 

miles, and the width varies from 6 miles at the upper end 
to two at the lower, and at some places it is only one mile 
wide, or even less. The narrowest part is between the an- 
cient cities of Sestos and Abydos, where Xerxes made his 
bridge of boats, and where the legend related that Leander, 
swam across to visit Hero. The name of the Hellespont, 
(i. e., the sea of Helie,) was derived from the story of 
Helle's being drowned in it. The Hellespont was the 
boundary of Europe and Asia, dividing the Thracian Cher- 
sonese in the former from the Troad and the territories of 
Abydos and Lampsacus in the latter. The district just 
mentioned, on the S. side of the Hellespont, was also called 
'EAAt/o-ttoi/tos, its inhabitants 'EAXTycrTroi/rtot, and the cities on 

its coast 'EAXTyCTTTOVTiat TVoXeiS. 

ISLAOT)S OFF THE COAST OF MYSIA. 

20. Off the coast of Mysia lay the islands of Lesbos. 
Tenedos, Lemnos, and Imbros. 

21. Lesbos, also called Mytilene after its capital 
city, now Metelin, the largest and by far the most impor- 
tant of the islands of the Aegaean along the coast of Asia 
Minor, lay opposite the gulf of Adramyttium, the direction 
of its length being i^. W. and S. E. It is intersected by 
lofty mountains and indented by large bays. Its valleys 
were very fertile, especially in the "N. part near Methymna ; 
and it produced corn, oil, and wine renowned for its excel- 
lence. 

22. In early times this island was called by various 
names, the chief of which were, Issa, Pelasgia, Mytanis, 
and Macaria: the late Greek writers called it Mytilene, 
from its chief city, and this name has been preserved to 
modern times. The earliest reputed inhabitants were 
Palasgians, the next, an Ionian colony, who were said to 
have settled in it two generations before the Trojan War ; 
lastly, at the time of the great AeoHc migration, (130 years 
after the Trojan war, according to the mythical chron- 
ology,) the island was colonized by Aeolians, who founded 
in it an Hexapolis, consisting of the six cities, Mytilene, 
Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe. 

23. Mytilene was the scene of the struggles between 
the nobles and the commons, in which Alcaeus and Pittacus 

its name -wlience derived? 20. "WTiat islands off the coast of Mysia? 21. What 
and where was Lesbos, what was the nature of its surface, and what were its pro- 
ducts ? 22. What other names had it, hy whom was it colonized, and what were 



198 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

took part, and wMcli resulted in the expulsion of the nobles. 
Meanwhile the city had grown to great importance as a 
naval power, and had founded colonies on the coasts of 
Mysia and Thrace. After experiencing various fortunes, it 
fell under the power of the Romans after the Mithridatic 
war. It was the birthplace of the lyric poets Alcaeus, 
and Sappho. 

24. Methymna, the second city x)f the island, stood 
at its north extremity, and had a good harbor. It was the 
birthplace of the musician and dithyrambic poet Arion, and 
of the historian Hellanicus. The celebrated Lesbian wine 
grew in its neighborhood. 

25. Antissa, on the W. coast, with a harbor, was 
originally on a small island opposite Lesbos, which Avas 
afterwards united with Lesbos. Terpander, the father 
of Greek music, was born here. 

26. Eresus or Eressus, on the W. coast of the island, 
was the birthplace of Theophrastus and Phanias, and, ac- 
cording to some, of Sappho. 

27. Tenedos, still bearing the same name, was 12 
miles distant from the mouth of the Hellespont, 5 miles 
from the coast of the Troad, and V miles from Lesbos : its 
circuit was 10 miles. It appears in the legend of the Trojan 
war as the station to which the Greeks withdrew their fleet, 
in order to induce the Trojans to think that they had de- 
parted, and to receive the wooden horse. In the Persian 
war it was used by Xerxes as. a naval station. 

28. Lemnos, now jStalimene, one of the largest islands 
in the Aegaean sea, was situated nearly midway between 
Mt. Athos and the Hellespont, and about 22 miles S. W. of 
Imbros. Its area is about 147 square miles. 

29. Lemnos was sacred to Hephaestus, (Yulcan,) who 
is said to have fallen here when Zeus hurled him down 
from Olympus. Hence the workshop of "the god is some- 
times placed in this island. The legend appears to have 
arisen from the volcanic nature of Lemnos, which possessed 
in antiquity a volcano called Mosychlus. The island still 
bears traces of having been subject to the action of volcanic 
fire, though the volcano has long since disappeared. 

30. Several interesting historical legends, which cannot 

its cities? 23. For what is Mytilene noted ? Of -whom was it the Ibirthplace? 24. 
What and where was Methymna, and the birthplace of whom ? 25. Where was 
Antissa, and whose birthplace was it? 26. Where was Eresus, and whose birth- 
place? 27. Where was Tenedos, and noted for what? 28. Where was Lemnos, 
and what its size? 29. How is Lemnos noted in mythology ? 30. History records 



ASIA MINOK. 199 

be recorded here, are connected with, this island. It was 
conquered by one of the generals of Darius ; but Miltiades 
delivered it from the Persians and made it subject to 
Athens, in whose power it remained for a long time. 

31. In the earhest times Lemnos appears to have con- 
tained only one town^ which bore the same name as the 
island ; but at a later period we read of two towns, Myrina 
{Palaeo Castro) on the W. of the island, andHephaestia 
or Hephaestias on the IST. W. with a harbor. 

32. Imbros, now Imbro or Imhrus^ near the Thracian 
Ohersonesus, was about 18 miles S. E. of Samothrace, and 
about 22 iN". E. of Lemnos. It is about 25 miles in circum- 
ference, and is hilly, but contains many fertile valleys. 
There was a town of the same name on the E. of the island, 
of which there are still some ruins. 



1. Lydi a was in the middle of the W. side of Asia Minor, 
between Mysia on the N. and Caria on the S., and between 
Phrygia on the E. and the Aegean sea on the W. Its 
boundaries varied so much at different times, that they 
cannot be described with any approach to exactness till we 
come to the time of the Roman rule over W. Asia. At 
that time the K. boundary, towards Mysia, was the moun- 
tain-range which forms the N. margin of the valley of the 
Hermus, called Sardene, a S. W. branch of the Phrygian 
Olympus : the E. boundary towards Phrygia was an imagi- 
nary line : and the S. boundary towards Caria was the river 
Maeander. These boundaries include Ionia. 

2. In early times the country was called Maeonia, by 
which name alone it is known to Homer ; who calls the in- 
habitants Maeones. In the mythical legends the common 
name of the people and country, Lydi and Lydia, is derived 
from Lydus, the son of Atys, the first king. The Lydians 
appear to have been a race closely connected with the Ca- 
rians and the Mysians, with whom they observed a common 
worship in the temple of Zeus Carius at Mylasa : they also 
practised the worship of Cybele, (Rhea,) and other Phrygian 
customs. 

3. Amidst the uncertainties of the ancient legends it is 

what changes in the government of this island? 31. What towns in Lemnos? 
32. Where was Imbros— how large— what its soil— what town had it ? 

1. Where was Lydia, and how bounded ? 2. What was the reputed origin of the 



200 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

clear that Lydia was a very early seat of Asiatic civilization, 
and that it exerted a very important influence on the Greeks. 

4. Tradition mentioned three dynasties of kings : the 
A-tyddae^ which ended about b. c. 1221 ; the Seraclidae^ 
which reigned 505 years, down to 716 ; and the Merm- 
nddae^ 160 years, down to 556. Only the last dynasty can 
be safely regarded as historical, and the fabulous element 
has a large place in the details of their history. Of this 
dynasty Croesus was the last king : during his reign the 
Lydian monarchy was overthrown by Cyrus, b. c. 556. 

5. Under the five kings of the last dynasty the Lydians 
appear to have been a highly civilized, industrious, and 
wealthy people, practising agriculture, commerce, and 
manufactures, and acquainted with various arts^ and exer- 
cising, through their intercourse with the Greeks of Ionia, 
an important influence on the progress of Greek civilization. 
Among the inventions, or improvements, which the Greeks 
are said to have derived from them, were the weaving and 
dyeing of fine fabrics ; various processes of metallurgy ; the 
use of gold and silver money, which the Lydians are said 
to have been the first to coin, the former from the gold 
found on Tmolus and from the golden sands of the Pactolus ; 
and various metrical and musical improvements, especially 
the scale or mode of music called the Lydiariy and the form 
of the lyre called the magadis. 

6. The high civilization of the Lydians was, however, 
combined with a lax morahty, and, after the Persian con- 
quest, when they were forbidden by Cyrus to carry arms, 
they sank gradually into a by-word for efieminate luxurious- 
ness, and their very name and language had almost entirely 
disappeared by the commencement of our era. 

7. Under the Persians Lydia and Mysia formed the sec- 
ond satrapy : after the Macedonian conquest Lydia be- 
longed first to the kings of Syria, the Seleucidae, and next, 
(after the defeat of Antioehus the Great by the Romans,) to 
those of Pergamus, and so passed by the bequest of Attains 
III. to the Romans, under whom it formed part of the 
province of Asia. 

8. The principal mountain-ranges of Lydia were: — 1, 

name and of tbe inhabitants of the country ? What other name had the country ? 
3. What may be regarded as certain as respects the civilization of Lydia ? 4. 
How many, and what dynasties of Lydian kings does tradition mention? 6. Un- 
der these kings, what was the character and condition of the Lydians ? 6. What 
•was the later character of the Lydians ? 7. Wliat was the fate of Lydia after the 
Persian conquest and later? 8. What were the principal mountain-ranges of 



ASIA MINOR. 201 

Tmolus, 6 T//,coXo5, a continuation of the Taurus chain, 
which, coming in from Phrygia under the name of Mes- 
sogis, assumes in Lydia the shape of a yoke, turning first 
northward, and then again, at Sardis, southward, in the di- 
rection of the Sipylus, of considerable height, but exceed- 
ingly fruitful and abounding in vineyards; 2, Sipylus, a 
continuation or branch of Tmolus. 

9. The chief rivers of Lydia were: — 1, The Her- 
mus, now Gediz Toha% forming, in its course, a perfect*, 
sickle; 2, The Cayster, now Kuchouk Mendere or the 
Little Maeander ; 3, The Maeander, now Mendere^ 
forming the Southern boundary. 

CITIES IN LTDIA EXCLUSIVE OP lOKlA. " 

10. Among the cities of Lydia Proper Oi> Lydia exclusive 
of Ionia, Sardes or Sardis was the mosv important, and 
the capital of the country. Its ruins are now called Sart. 
It stood on the S. edge of the rich valley of the Hermus, 
at the I^. foot of Mt. Tmolus, on the little river Pactolus, 
about 4| miles S. of the junction of that river with the 
Hermus. 

11. Sardis was one- of the earliest seats of the Christian 
religion, and one of the '7 churches of the province of Asia, 
which are named in the Apocalypse ; but the Apostle's 
language implies that the church at Sardis had already 
sunk into almost hopeless decay. Under the Persian and 
Greco-Syrian empire, it was the residence of the satrap of 
Lydia. 

12. To the S. E. of the foregoing was Philadelphia, 
noted as one of the seven churches. 

13. ISTear the river Hermus and close by Mount Sipylus 
was Magnesia ad Sipylum, MayvT^crta wo ^t7n;Xa), now 
Magnisa or Manissa^ celebrated for the signal victory 
gained by the Romans under L. Scipio over Antiochus, 
B. c. 190. There was another Magnesia near the Maeander, 
called Mag7iesia ad Maeandrum. 

14. Larissa, surnamed Ephesia,to distinguish it from' 
other cities of this name, was situated in the plain of the 
Cayster, on the K. side of the Messogis, 1^. E. of Ephesus, 
noted for a celebrated temple of Apollo Larissaeus. 

Lydia? 9. Name and point out the principal rivere of Lydia? 10. "Where and 
what was Sardis? 11. How is Sardis noted in ecclesiastical history. What was 
it after the overthrow of the Lydian monarchy ? 12. Where was Philadelphia, 
and how noted ? 13. Where was Magnesia ad Sipylum, and for what noted? 14. 

9* 



202 Aiq-CIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

15. Other places of some note in Lydia Proper were 
Hypaepa, Hierocaesarea, Metropolis, Thyatira, 
famous for its pm-ple fabrics and the refinement of its in- 
habitants: it was one of the seven churches : ApoUonia, 
with a celebrated temple of Apollo, andnearit Apollonis. 

S>— Ionia. 

1. Ionia lay along the coast of Lydia and Caria. The 
length of coast occupied by the Ionian settlements is esti- 
mated by Straboat 3,430 stadia, about 427 miles, including 
aU the sinuosities of the different bays by which it is indented. 
The distance by land in a straight line is much smaller, only 
about 100 miles. It extended from the Oumaeus Sinus, £ai/ 
ofFoggia N'ova^ on the N. to Posidium Promontorium and 
the Sinus Bargylietes, G. of Mendelyah, on the S. The ex- 
tent of territory possessed by the Ionian States on the land 
side was narrowly circumscribed by a chain of mountains 
extending from the Hermus to the Caystrus. This ridge, 
known to the ancients under the celebrated names of 
Sipylus and Tmolus, formed the natural seiDaration between 
them and the plains of Lydia. Beyond the Caystrus M. 
Messogis ranged along the remainder of the Ionian coast 
tin it terminated in the promontory of Mycale : then fol- 
lows the mouth of the Maeander and the territory of Mi- 
letus, circumscribed by that river^and the bay and moun- 
tain of Latmos. 

2. The mythical account of" the great Ionic migration " 
relates that, in consequence of the disputes between the 
sons of Codrus, king of Athens, about the succession to 
his government, his younger sons, Neleus and Androclus, 
resolved to seek a new home beyond the Aegean Sea. At- 
tica was at the time over-jDcopled by numerous exiles, 
whom the great revolution, known as " the return of the 
Heraclidae," had driven out of their own states, the chief 
of whom were the lonians who had been expelled from 
Peloponnesus by the Dorian invaders. A large portion of 
this superfluous population went forth as Athenian colonists 
under the leadership of Androclus and N'eleus, and of other 
chieftains of other races, and settled on that part of the W. 
shores of Asia JMinor which formed the coast of Lydia and 

Where was Larissa, and for what noted ? 15. What other places of note in Lydia 
Proper ? 

1. Where was Ionia, and what was its extent? 2. What is the tradition r&- 



ASIA MINOE. 203 

part of Caria, and also in the adjacent islands of Chios 
and Samos, and m. the Cyclades. The mythical chronology 
places this great movement 140 years after the Trojan 
war, or 60 years after the return of the Heraclidae, ^. e. in 
B. c. 1060 or 1044, according to the two chief dates imagin- 
ed for the Trojan war. Passing from mythology to his- 
tory, the earliest authentic records show us the existence 
of twelve great cities on the above-named coast, claim- 
ing to be, though some of them only partially, of Ionic 
origin, and all united in one confederacy, similar to that 
of the twelve ancient Ionian cities on the N". coast of the 
Peloponnesus. 

3. The name of the twelve cities, going from S. to N"., 
were Miletus, Myus, Priene, Samos, (city and island,) 
Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Erythrae, 
Chios, (city and island,) Clazomenae, and Phocaea; 
the first three on the coast of Caria, the rest on that of 
Lydia. The city of Smyrna, which lay within this dis- 
trict, but was of Aeolic origin, was afterwards (about b. c. 
700) added to the Ionian confederacy. 

4. The common sanctuary of the league was Panionium, 
a sanctuary of Poseidon Heliconius, on the N". side of the 
promontory of Mycale, opposite to Samos ; and here was 
held the great national assembly of the confederacy, called 
Panionia. 

CITIES US' IONIA. 

5. Miletus, one of the greatest cities of Asia Minor, 
belonging territorially to Caria and politically to Ionia, 
stood upon the S. headland of the Sinus Latmicus, opposite 
to the mouth of the Maeander, and possessed four distinct 
harbors, protected by a group of islets, called Lade, Dro- 
miscus, and Perne. It became, in consequence, a great 
commercial city, and sent out many colonies. 

6. The first Greek colonists of Miletus were said to 
have been Cretans who were expelled by Minos : the next 
were led to it by Neleus at the time of the so-called Ionic 
migration. Miletus is celebrated as the birthplace of the 
philosophers Thales and Anaximander, and of the historians 
Hecataeus and Cadmus, the latter being the reputed inventor 
of prose writing. 

Bpecting the Bettlement of Ionia, and what is the account found in the first au- 
thentic records ? 3. What were the names of the 12, or rather 13, confederated 
Ionian cities ? 4. What was common to this league, and what was held there ? 
5. "Where was Miletus, how situated for commerce? 6. By whom was Miletus 



204 AITCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

T. My lis, the least city of tlie Ionian confederacy, stood 
on the S. side of the Maeander, about 4 miles from its 
month, and very near Miletus. Its original site was proba- 
bly at the mouth of the river ; but as this was, in the 
course of time, choked up with mud, the site gradually be- 
came an unhealthy marsh, infested by immense numbers of 
mosquitoes. The consequence was, that by the time of 
Augustus it was so deserted by its inhabitants, that the few 
who remained were reckoned as citizens of Miletus, 

8. Priene stood in the N'.'W. corner of Caria, at the S, 
foot of M. Mycale, and on the IsT. side of the Sinus Latmi- 
cus. It stood originally on the sea-shore, and had two har- 
bors and a small fleet, but the change in the coast by the 
alluvial deposits of the Maeander left it 40 stadia (5 miles) 
inland. 

9. Priene was of much rehgious importance in connec- 
tion with the Panionian festival on M. Mycale, at which the 
people of Priene took precedence in virtue of their being the 
supposed descendants of those of Helice in Greece Proper. 
The city was also celebrated as the birthplace of Bias. 

For Sam OS and Chios, see islands off the coast. 

10. Ephesus, of which the ruins are near Ayasdluk, 
the chief of the twelve Ionian cities, was said to have been 
founded by Carians and Leleges, and to have been taken 
possession of by Androclus, the son of Codrus, at the time of 
the great Ionian migration. It stood a little S. of the river 
Cayster, near its mouth, where a marshy plain, extending 
S. from the river, is bounded by two hills. Prion or Lepre 
on the E., and Coressus on the S. 

11. In the plain to the N". E. of the city, beyond its 
walls, stood the celebrated temple of Artemis, which was 
built in the sixth century b. c, by an architect named 
Chersiphron, and after being burned down by Herostratus 
in the night on which Alexander the Great was born, (Oct. 
13-14, B. c. 856,) was restored by the joint efforts of all the 
Ionian States, and was regarded as one of the wonders of 
the world : nothing now remains of the temple, except 
some traces of its foundations. 

12. Ephesus was greatly favored by its Greek rulers, 

colonized? It -was celebrated'as the birthplace of -whom ? 7. Where -was Myus, 
how situated, and -what became of it? 8. Where was Priene, and what change 
did it experience? 9. From what did its importance chiefly arise, and whose 
birthplace was it ? 10. Ephesus said to have been founded by whom, stood where ? 
11. To what structure in its im:mediate vicinity was Ephesus chiefly indebted for 
its fame? 12. What was the condition of Ephesus under its G-reek rulers and 



ASIA MINOE. 205 

especially by Lysimaclius, who greatly advanced its pros- 
perity. Attalus II. PMladelphus constructed docks for it 
and improved its harbors. Under the Romans it was the 
capital of the province of Asia, and by far the greatest city 
of Asia Minor. 

13. Ephesns is conspicuous in the early history of the 
Christian church, both St. Paul and St. John having labored 
in it, and addressed epistles to the church of Ephesus ; and 
at one time its bishop possessed the rank and power of a 
patriarch over the churches in the province of Asia. The 
philosopher Herachtus and the painter Parrhasius were 
born at Ephesus. 

14. Colophon, said to have been founded by Mopsus, 
a grandson of Tiresias, stood about 2 miles from the coast, 
on the river Hales, which was famous for the coldness of its 
water, between Lebedus and Ephesus, about 15 miles from 
the former, and not quite 8 miles from the latter : its har- 
bor was called IsTotium. 

15. It was one of the most powerful members of the 
Ionian confederacy, possessing a considerable fleet and ex- 
cellent cavalry ; but it suffered greatly in war, being taken 
at different times by the Lydians, the Persians, Lysimachus, 
and the CHician pirates. Lysimachus may be said to have 
destroyed the place, by depriving it of its inhabitants, with 
a view to the aggrandizement of Ephesus. 

16. Besides claiming to be the birthplace of Homer, 
Colophon was the native city of the poet Hermesianax : the 
poets Mimnermus and l!^icander, usually called Colopho- 
nians, were in reality born, the former at Smyrna, being 
descended from those Colophonians who reconquered 
Smyrna from the Aeolians : the latter at Claros near 
Colophon. 

17. Lebedus, between Colophon and Teos, flourished 
chiefly by commerce, until Lysimachus transplanted most 
of its inhabitants to Ephesus. 

18. Teos stood on the S. side of the isthmus which con- 
nects the peninsula of M. Mimas with the mainland of 
Lydia, at the bottom of the bay between the promontories 
of Corycium and Myonnesus. It was a flourishing seaport, 

■ander the Romans? 13. What gives it importance in ecclesiastical history? 
Whose birthplace was it? 14. Where was Colophon, said to have been founded 
by whom? 15. What was its position and its subsequent fate? 16. Whose 
birthplace was Colophon ? 17. Where was Lebedus, and how distinguished ? 
18. Where and what was Teos, possessing what commercial advantages, and what 



206 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

until, to free themselves from the Persian yoke, most of the 
inhabitants retired to Abdera in Thrace. 

19. Teos was the birthplace of the poet Anacreon. 

20. Erythrae, which stood at the bottom of a large 
bay, on the "W". side of the peninsula which lies opposite 
Chios, contained a temple of Hercules and Athene Pohas, 
remarkable for its antiquity. 

21. Clazomenae, one of the weaker members of the 
Ionian league, lay on the 'N. coast of the Ionian peninsula, 
upon the gulf of Smyrna. It had a considerable commerce, 
and was celebrated for its temples of Apollo, Artemis and 
Cybele, and still more as the birthplace of Anaxagoras. 

22. Phocaea, the ruins of which are called JTaraja- 
FoHa, i. e. Old FoJcia^ S. "W. of Fouges or JSfew Fokia^ 
the northernmost of the Ionian cities, stood at the W. ex- 
tremity of the tongue of land which divides the Sinus Elai- 
ticus {Gulf of Fouges) on the ]^. from the Sinus Hermaeus 
( G. of Smyrna) on the S. It was said to have been found- 
ed by Phocian colonists under Philogenes and Damon. 

23. Admirably situated, and possessing two excellent 
harbors, Naustathmus and Lampter, Phocaea became cele- 
brated as a great maritime state, and especially as the founder 
of the most distant Greek colonies towards the W., namely 
Massilia in Gaul, and the still more distant, though far less 
celebrated, city of Maenaca in Hispania Baetica. 

24. After the Persian conquest of Ionia, Phocaea had so 
declined, that she could furnish only three ships to support 
the great Ionian revolt; but the spirit of her people could 
not be extinguished : when the common cause was hopeless, 
and their city was besieged by Harpalus, they embarked, 
to seek new abodes in the distant W"., and bent their course 
to their colony of Aetalia in Corsica. During the voyage, 
however, a portion of the emigrants, having become home- 
sick, resolved to return to their native city, which they re- 
stored, and which recovered much of its prosperity, as is 
proved by the rich booty gained by the Romans, when they 
brutally plundered it under the praetor Aemilius, after 
■\^'hich it does not appear as a place of any consequence in 
history. 

25. Smyrna, still retaining its ancient name, and called 

temple ? 19. Whose native place was Teos ? 20. Where was Erythrae, and re- 
markable for what? 21. Where was Clazom.enae, celebrated for what? 22. 
Where was Phocaea, and said to have been founded by whom ? 23. How was it 
eituated, thus becoming celebrated for what ? 24. What became of the city after 



ASIA MINOR. 207 

in Turkish Izmir^ one of the most ancient and flourishing 
cities of Asia Minor, and the only one of the great cities on 
its W. coast which has survived to this day, stood in a posi- 
tion ahke remarkable for its beauty and for other natural 
advantages. Lying just about the centre of the W. coast 
of Asia Minor ; on the banks of the little river Meles, at the 
bottom of a deep bay, the Sinus Hermaeus or Smyrnaeus, 
( G. of Smyrna^) which formed a safe and immense harbor 
for the largest ships up to the very walls of the city ; at 
the foot of the rich slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance to 
the great and fertile valley of the Hermus, in which lay the 
great and wealthy city of Sardis ; and in the midst of the 
Greek colonies on the E. shore of the Aegean, it was mark- 
ed out by nature as one of the greatest emporiums for the 
trade between Europe and Asia, and has preserved that 
character to the present day. 

26. Smyrna was probably an Aeolian colony from Cyme. 
At an early period it fell, by a stratagem, into the hands of 
the lonians of Colophon, and remained an Ionian city from 
that time forth. 

27. This city occupies a distinguished place in the early 
history of Christianity, as one of the only two among the 
seven churches (the other being that of Philadelphia) of 
Asia which St. John addresses without any admixture of 
rebuke, and as the scene of the labors and martyrdom of 
Polycarp. 

28. In addition to all its other sources of renown, Smyrna 
stood at the head ot the cities which claimed the birth of 
Homer. The poet was worshipped as a hero in a magnifi- 
cent building called the Homereum, ('O/xijpetov.) 

29. As already remarked, the islands of Samos and 
Chios lay off the coast of Lydia, and near the former that 
of Icaria. 

ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF LYDIA. 

30. Samos, now Samo^ one of the principal islands of 
the Aegaean sea, lay in that ]3ortion of it called the Icarian 
sea, and was separated from the coast of Ionia only by a 
narrow strait formed by the overlapping of its E. promon- 
tory Posidium ( G. Golonna) with the westernmost spur of 

the Persian conquest? 25. What, and where was Smyrna, and what were the na- 
tural advantages of its Bituation? 26. What was its probable origin, and how did 
it become an Ionian city? 27. How is Smyrna noted in ecclesiastical history? 
28. How is it distinguished in connection with the classical literature of the 
Greeks? 29. What islands off the coast of Lydia? 30. What and where was 



208 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

M. Mycale, Pr. Trogilium, {C. S. Maria.) This strait, 
whicli is little more than three-quarters of a mile wide, was 
the scene of the battle of "Mycale. 

31. The island is formed by a range of mountains ex- 
tending from E. to "W., whence it derived its name ; for 
^a/xos was an old Greek word signifying a mountain. The 
circumference is about eighty miles. It was and is very 
fertile. 

32. Thucydides tells us that the Samians were the first 
of the Greeks who paid great attention to naval affairs. 
They early acquired such power at sea that, besides obtain- 
ing possession of parts of the opposite coast of Asia, they 
founded many colonies. After a transition from the state 
of a heroic monarchy, through an aristocracy, to a democ- 
racy, the island became subject to the most distinguished 
of the so-called tyrants, Polycrates, (b. c. 532,) under 
whom its jDower and splendor reached their highest pitch ; 
and Samos would probably have become the mistress of the 
Aegean, but for the murder of Polycrates. The island now 
became subject to the Persian empire, and then, after pass- 
ing through a long series of vicissitudes, it finally fell, in 
the time of Mithridates, into the power of the Eomans, who 
united it, b. c. 84, to the province of Asia. 

33. Samos may be regarded as almost the chief centre 
of Ionian manners, energies, luxury, science, and art. In 
literature it was made illustrious by the poets Asius, Choe- 
rilus, and Aeschrion : by the philosophers Pythagoras and 
Melissus ; and by the historians Pagaeus and Duris. 

34. The capital city, also called Samos, one of the 
thirteen confederated cities of Ionia, stood on the S. E. 
side of the island, opposite Trogilium Prom., partly on the 
shore, and partly rising on the hills behind in the form of 
an amphitheatre. 

35. Samos had a magnificent harbor, and numerous 
splendid buildings, among which the Heraeum, celebrated 
as one of the best early specimens of the Doric order of 
architecture, and as the chief centre of the worship of Hera 
(Juno) among the Ionian Greeks, stood about two miles W. 
of the city. It was burnt by the Persians, but soon rebuilt, 
probably in the time of Polycrates, in the Ionic order of 

Samos? 31. What formed SamoB — whence its name — what its circumference, 
and what the nature of its soil? 32. What does Thucydides say of Samos? 
Through what transitions did it pass? 33. How was Samos distinguished as re- 
gards civilization and human culture ? 34. What and where was the capital of 



ASIA MINOE. 209 

arcliitectiire, raid is spoken of by Herodotus as the largest 
temple that he knew. Nothing is left of it but traces of 
the foundations and a single capital and base. In the time 
of Herodotus, Samos was reckoned one of the finest cities 
of the world. Its ruins are so considerable as to allow its 
plan to be traced ; there are remains of its walls and towers, 
and of the theatre and aqueduct. 

36. Chios, Greek Khio^ Italian Scio^ Turkish SaM- 
Andassi, one of the largest and most famous islands of the 
Aegean, lay opposite to the peninsula of Clazomenae, and 
was reckoned at 900 stadia, about 112 miles in circuit. Its 
length from N. to S. is about 30 miles, its greatest breadth 
about 10, and the strait which divides it from the mainland, 
about eight, 

37. It was colonized by the loniaus at the time of their 
great migration: it became subject to Persia 494 b. c. : 
recovered its independence 479 b. c, in consequence of 
the battle of Mycale, became a member of the Athenian 
league, and for a long time the closest and most favored 
aUy of Athens ; but an unsuccessful attempt to revolt, in 
412, led to its conquest and devastation. It again re- 
covered its indej)endence, with Cos and Rhodes, in 358, 
and afterwards shared the fortunes of the other States of 
Ionia. 

38. Chios is covered with rocky mountains, clothed 
with the richest vegetation. It was celebrated for its 
wine, which was amongthebest known to the ancients, its figs, 
gum mastic, and other natural products, also for its marble 
and pottery, and for the beauty of its women, and the 
luxurious Hfe of its inhabitants. 

39. Of all the cities which aspired to the honor of being 
the birthplace of Homer, Chios was generally considered by 
the ancients to have the best claim; and it numbered 
among its natives the tragedian Ion, the historian Theo- 
pompus, the orator Theocritus, and other eminent men. 

40. Its chief city, Chios, {KJiio^) one of the confede- 
rated Ionian cities, stood on the E. side of the island, at the 
foot of its highest mountain, Pelinaeus : the other prin- 
cipal places in it were Posidium, Phanae, Notium, Laius 
Port us, Bolissus, Cardamyle, Leuconium, and Delphinium. 

the island? 35. For -what was the city of Samos noted? 36. Where was Chios 
and what are its dimensions ? 37. By whom was it colonized, and what vicissi- 
tudes did it experience ? 38. What was the nature of its surface, and for what 
was it celebrated? 39. How is Chios noted in literature? 40. What and where 



210 AKCIENT GEOGKAPIIY. 

41. Icarus or Icaria, now JVi/caria, one of the Spo- 
rades, W. of Sarnos, was also called Doliche, {SoXixi'h i- e. 
h?i(/ island.) Its common name and that of the surround- 
ing sea, Icarium Mare, "vrere derived from the myth of 
Icarus. It was first colonized by the IMilesians, but after- 
wards belonged to the Samians, who fed their herds on its 
rich pastures. 

1. Ciiria, in the S. "W. corner of Asia Minor, was 
bounded on the N. and !N". E. by the mountains of Mes- 
sogis and Cadmus, which divided it from Lydia and Phry- 
gia, and adjacent to Phrygia and Lycia on the E. and S. E. 
Its southern and western shores were washed by the Medi- 
terranean. 

2. Caria is intersected by low mountain-chains running 
out far into the sea in long promontories, the northernmost 
of which was called My c ale or Trogilium, (opposite to 
Samos ;) the next Posidium, (on which stood Miletus and 
Branchidae ;) the next is the long tongue of land terminated 
by the two headlands of Zephyrium and Termerium; 
next the Cnidian Chersonesus, terminated by the cape 
Tri opium and the city of Cnidus; then the Rhodian 
Chersonesus, the S. point of which was called Cynos- 
sema, opposite to Rhodes; and lastly Pedalium or Ar- 
te mi slum, [C. jSuevela,) forming the W. headland of the 
bay of Glaucus. 

3. The chief gulfs formed by these promontories were 
the Maeandrian, between TrogUium, (C /St. Mary or 
JKanapitza^ and Posidium: the lassian, between Posi- 
dium and Zephyrium : this gulf, the Sinus lasius, was also 
called Bargylietes S., and is now the gulf of Mendelyah : and 
the Ceramican or Dorian, {Gulf of JTos or Golfo di 
/Stanco,) between Termerium, (Petra Termera^) and Trio- 
pium, (C. Krio.) The valleys between those mountain 
chains Avere well watered and fertile. 

4. The chief river was the Maeander, (Mendere,) be- 
tween the chains of Mcssogis, (^Kestane Dagh^ and Latmus, 
to the S. of which the country was watered by its tributa- 

•was the chief city, and \vhat were the other principal places ? 41. Where "was 
Icarus, had what other name, its common name whence derived? 

1. How was Caria bounded? 2. "\i\Tiat was the face of the countrj', and what 
promontories on the coast? 3. What gulfs between these promontories? 4. 



ASIA MINOR. 211 

ries, the Marsyas, (Tschinar Tchai^) Harpasus, {Arpa 
iSii,) and Mosynus, besides some streams flowing W. and 
S. into the sea, the most considerable of which was the Cal- 
bis, (Quingiov Tanas.) 

5. The chief products of the country were corn, wine, 
oil, and figs, for the last of which Caunus, on the sea-coast, 
was very famous. An extensive commerce was carried on 
by the Greek colonies on the coast. 

6. Even before the great colonization of the coasts of 
Asia Minor, Dorian settlements existed on the Triopian 
and Cnidian promontories, and this part of Caria, with the 
adjacent islands, received at that time other Dorian colo- 
nies, and obtained the name of Doris ; while to the N. of 
the Sinus lasius the coast was occupied by Ionian colonies, 
and thus formed the S. part of l6nia. The inhabitants of 
the rest of the country were Carians, (Kape?,) a wide-spread 
race of the Indo-Germanic stock, nearly allied to the Ly- 
dians and Mysians, which appears, from the earliest times 
of which Ave know any thing, to have occupied the greater 
part of the W. coast of Asia Minor and several islands of 
the Aegean, in conjunction with the Leleges, from whom 
the Carians are not easily distinguishable. 

7. The language of the Carians was reckoned by the 
Greeks as a barbarian tongue, (^. e. unintelligible,) though 
it early received an intermixture of Greek. The people 
were considered mean and stupid, even for slaves. 

8. Of the Dorian settlements on the coast of Caria and 
the neighboring islands six (towns) formed a league, called 
the Dorian Hexapolis, consisting of Lindus, lalysus, 
and Camirus in the island of Rhodes, the island of Cos, and 
Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the mainland. The other 
Dorian settlements in the neighborhood were never admit- 
ted to the league. The members of the hexapolis were 
accustomed to celebrate a festival with games on the 
Triopian promontory near Cnidus, in honor of the Triopian 
Apollo. The prizes in these games were brazen tripods, 
which the victors had to dedicate in the temple of Apollo ; 
and Halicarnassus was struck out of the league, because one 
of her citizens carried the tripod to his own house instead 
of leaving it in the temple. The hexapolis thus became a 

What and -whero was the chief river, and what wci-o its tributaries ? 5. What 
were the chief products of tlie country? What its commerce? 6. What is said 
of the inhabitants of Caria? 7. How were the language and character of the 
Carians regarded by the Greeks? 8. What did the Dorian settlements form? 



212 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

pentapolis. Caria passed througli a succession of political 
vicissitudes, and finally formed, under the Romans, a part 
of the province of Asia. 

CITIES IN CAEIA. 

9. The most important cities in Caria were Cnidus, 
Halicarnassus, and Mylasa. 

10. Cnidus or Gnidus, a celebrated city on the 
promontory of Trioj^ium, was a Lacedaemonian colony, and 
the chief city of the Dorian Hexapolis. 

11. The city was built partly on the mainland and 
partly on an island joined to the coast by a causeway ; it 
had two harbors, and enjoyed a considerable commerce. 

12. Cnidus was resorted to by travellers from all parts 
of the civilized world, that they might see the statue of 
Aphrodite by Praxiteles, which stood in her temple here. 
The city possessed also temj^les of Apollo and Poseidon. 

13. Among the celebrated natives of the city were the 
historian Ctesias, the mathematician and astronomer Eu- 
doxus, the architect Sostratus, and the grammarian Aga- 
thar chides. 

14. Halicarnassus, in the S. "W. of Caria, on the !N". 
coast of the Sinus Ceramicus, opposite to the island of Cos, 
was said to have been founded by Dorians from Troezene, 
and was at first called Zephyra. Its exclusion from the 
Hexapolis has already been mentioned and explained. 

15. With the rest of the coast of Asia Minor, it fell un- 
der the dominion of the Persians, at an early period of 
whose rule Lygdamis made himself tyrant of the city, and 
founded a dynasty which lasted for some generations. 
His daughter Artemisia assisted Xerxes in his expedition 
agaiust Greece. 

16. After this city had experienced a series of changes, 
Alexander the Great took it, in b. c. 334, after an obstinate 
defence by the Persian general, Memnon, and destroyed it. 
From this blow it never recovered, although it continued 
to be celebrated for the Mausoleum, one of the seven won- 
ders of the world, a magnificent edifice which Artemisia 
H. built as a tomb for Mausolus, her husband, and which 
was adorned with the works of the most eminent Greek 

9. Wliich -were the most important cities of Cai-ia? 10. Where and what was 
Cnidus ? 11. How was Cnidus situated ? 12. What made it a place of great re- 
sort? 13. Cnidus is noted as the birthplace of whom ? 14. Where was Hahcar- 
nassus, by whom founded and how named ? 15. Under whose dominion did it 
fall, at an early period governed by whom ? 16. What happened to the city, b. c. 



ASIA MINOE. 213 

sculptors of the age. Fragments of these sculptures, which 
were discovered built into the walls of the citadel of JBu- 
drum, are now in the British museum. 

IV. Halicarnassus was noted as the birthplace of the 
historians Herodotus and Dionysius. 

18. Mylasa, a very ancient and flourishing inland city, 
lay 80 stadia (10 Roman miles) from the coast at the Jas- 
sian gulf, in a fertile plain, on and at the foot of an isolated 
rock of beautiful white marble, which furnished the ma- 
terial for the splendid temples and other public buildings 
of the city. The most important of these buildings was 
the great national temple of Zeus Carius or Osagon. The 
remaining ruins of the city are called Melasso. Its remains 
are very extensive. 

19. Other less noted cities of Caria were : — 1, Daedala ; 
2, Clydae / 3, Caunus y 4, Galymna or Calynda / 5, 
Phoenix ; 6, Loryma y 7, Leuca y 8, Myndus ; 9, Gary- 
anda ; \^^ Bargylia^ giving name to the adjacent gulf; 
11, Jassus ^ 12, Euromus or Eur opus j 13, Lahranda , 
14, Stratonicea ; 15, Alahanda ; IQ, Antiochia ad Mae- 
andrum / 17, Aphrodisias. 

ISLANDS OFF THE COAST OF CARTA. 

20. The most important islands off the coast of Caria 
were Cos, Patmos, Leros, and Calymna. 

21. Cos, Coos, Cou.s,now /Stanchio or Eos, one of the 
Sporades, lay at the mouth of the Ceramicus Sinus, opposite 
to Halicarnassus. In early times it was called Meropis and 
Nymphaea. It was colonized by Aeolians, but became a 
member of the Dorian confederacy. 

22. Cos, the chief city of the island, stood on the IST. E. 
side in a beautiful situation, and had a good harbor. ISTear 
it stood the Asclepieum, or temple of Asclepius, to whom 
the island was sacred, and from whom its chief family, the 
Asclepiadae, claimed their descent. The island was very 
fertile ; its chief productions were wine, ointments, and the 
light transparent dresses called " Coae Vestes." 

23. The island was the birthplace of the great physician 
Hippocrates, who was an Asclepiad ; of the poet Philetas, and 



S34, and what made it celebrated ? 17. Halicarnassus was noted as the birthplace 
of whom? 18. Where and how situated Avas Mylasa ? 19. Name the other cities 
of Caria. 20 What islands lay oft' the coast of Caria? 21. What and where was 
Cos, in earlier times how called, by whom colonized, then became what? 22. 
What was the chief city, what near it; what the soil and productions of the 
ieland ? 23. The island is celebrated as the birthplace of -what illustrious men ? 



214 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

of the painter Apelles, whose picture of Antigonus and of 
Venus Anadyomene adorned the Asclepieum. 

24. Pat m OS, now Fatmo^ one of the Sporades, in the 
Icarian sea, at about equal distances S. of Samos, and W. 
of the Posidium Prom., is celebrated as the place to which 
the Apostle John was banished, and in which he wrote the 
Apocalypse. On the E. side was a city of no great note, 
,with a harbor. 

i 25. Leros, one of the Sporades, lay opposite to the 
mouth of the Sinus lassius. Its inhabitants, who came 
originally from Miletus, bore a bad character. It is now 
called Lero. 

26. To the K. W. of Cos, and belonging to the Spo- 
rades, lay a group of islands called Calydnae. The 
largest of them was called Calydna, and afterwards Ca- 
lymna, now Kalimno. 

1. Bithynia was bounded on the W. by Mysia, the 
Propontis, and the Thracian Bosporus, and on the N". by the 
Pontus Euxinus, on the E. by Paphlagonia, on the S. by 
Phrygia Epictetus. The river Parthenius was the dividing 
hne between it and Paphlagonia. 

2. Bithynia was possessed, at an early period, by 
Thracian tribes from the neighborhood of the Strymon, 
{Struma : ^ViX^^^^ Karasu^ called Thyni, (©wot,) and Bi- 
thyni, (Bt^wot,) of whom the former dwelt on the coast, 
the latter in the interior. The earlier inhabitants were 
the Bebryces, Caucones, and Mygdones, and the ^. E. 
part of the district was possessed by the Mariandyni. 

3. The Romans at first attached Bithynia to the prov- 
ince of Asia, afterwards to that of Pontus, and under 
Augustus it was made a proconsular province. 

'4. It was a fertile country, intersected with wooded 
mountains, the highest of wMch was the Mysian Olympus 
on its S. border. 

5. The chief rivers of Bithynia were the Sangarius, 
now SaJcaria ; the Billaeus, now Filiyas ; the Par- 
thenius, now Bartan Su^ and the Rhyndacus, now 

24. Where -was Patmos, and for -what celebrated 1 25. Where Tvas Leros, 
whence its inhabitants, bearing -what character? 26. What and where was 
Calydna? 

1. How was Bithynia bounded ? 2. By what people was Bithynia inhabited ? 
8. What Avas Bithynia under the Romans? 4. VVhat was the nature of the 



ASIA MINOE. 215 

Mualitsch^ on the Mysian border. On tlie banks of the 
Rhyndacus, called Mdremos by the modern Greeks, Lu- 
cuUus gained a great victory over Mithridates, b. c. 73. 

6. Bithynia had two deep bays on its coast, both run- 
ning in from the Propontis : 1, The Sin. Astacenus, 
now G. of Izmid^ deep and spacious; 2, The Sin. Cia- 
nus, now G. of Maudania or Kio^ according to some. 

CITIES ANTD TOWNS IIST BITHYNIA. 

7. The chief cities of Bithynia were: — 1, Nicaea; 2, 
E'icomedia; 3, Chalcedon; 4, Heraclea Pontica, 
and 5, Bithynium. 

8. l^icaea, the ruins of which are called J^m'^, one of 
the most celebrated cities of Asia, stood on the E. side of 
the lake Ascania or Ascanius, {Iznih) Its site appears to 
have been occupied in very ancient times by a town called 
Attaea, and afterwards by a settlement of the Bottiaeans, 
called Ancore or Helicore, which was destroyed by the 
Mysians. N'ot long after the death of Alexander the Great, 
Antigonus built on the same spot a city which he named 
after himself, Antigonia ; but Lysimachus soon after changed 
the name into Mcaea, in honor of his wife. Under the kings 
of Bithynia it was often the royal residence, and it long dis- 
puted with Mcomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. The 
Roman emperors bestowed upon it numerous honors and 
benefits, which are recorded on its coins. 

9. Its position on an extensive plain, at the junction of 
several of the chief roads leading through Asia Minor to 
Constantinople, made it the centre of a large traffic. 

10. Nicaea is very famous in ecclesiastical history as the 
seat of the great Oecumenical Council, which Constantino 
convoked, a. d. 325, chiefly for the decision of the Arian 
controversy, and which drew up the Nicene Creed: at 
least the first part of that well-known Creed, the latter part 
Tjeing added by the Council of Constantinople, a. d. 381. 

11. Iznik, the modern l^icaea, is a poor village of 
about 100 houses ; but the double walls of the ancient city 
still remain almost complete, exhibiting four large and two 
small gates. There are also the remains of the two moles 
which formed the harbor on the lake, (Lacus Ascanius, 



country? 5. What were the cMef rivers of B. ? 6. What gulfs on the coast? 
7. What were the chief cities of Bithynia ? 8. What and where was Ni- 
eaea, by whom built, named after whom? 9. What were the advantages of its 
situation ? 10. For what is Nicaea famous iu ecclesiastical history ? 11. What is 



216 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

•r] Aa-Kavta XLfxvr}^) of an aqueduct, of the theatre, and of the 
gymnasium : in this last edifice, we are told, there was a 
point from which all the four gates were visible, so great 
was the regularity with which the city was built. 

12. Mcaea was the birthplace of Hipparchus, the 
celebrated Greek astronomer, who flourished b. c. 160-145, 
and ofDio or Dion Cassius, the historian, born a. d. 155, 

13. Nicomedia was built (b. c. 264) at the N. E. cor- 
ner of the Sinus Astacenus, by Nicomedes I., who transfer- 
red to it the inhabitants of Astacus (on the same gulf) which 
he had destroyed. 

14. It was the chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, 
and it soon became one of the most splendid cities of the 
then known world. Under the Romans it was a colony, 
and a favorite residence of several of the later emperors, 
especially of Diocletian and Constantino the Great. Though 
repeatedly injured by earthquakes, it was always restored 
by the munificence of the emperors. It is memorable in 
history as the scene of Hannibal's death. 

15. Nicomedia was the birthplace of the philosopher and 
historian Arrian, (Arrianus,) who published, in seven books, 
the History of the Asiatic expedition of Alexander the 
Great. 

16. Chalcedon, (XaXK^^Scuv,) more correctly Calche don, 
(KaA,;j('78a)v,) now ChaTkedon^ Greek, ICadi-ICioi^ Turkish, (in 
ruins,) on the coast of the Propontis at the entrance of the 
Bosporus, nearly opposite to Byzantium, was founded by a 
colony from Megara, b. c. 685. 

17. After a long period of independence, only interrupt- 
ed by its capture by the Persians and its recovery by the 
Athenians, it became subject to the kings of Bithynia, and 
sufiered by the transference of most of its inhabitants to 
the new city of Mcomedia, b. c. 140. The Romans restor- 
ed its fortifications and made it the chief city of the prov- 
ince of Bithynia, or JPontica Prima. After various for- 
tunes under the empire, it was entirely destroyed by the 
Turks. 

18. The fourth oecumenical council of the church met 
here, a. d. 451. 

19. Heraclea Pontica, now HeraTdi or Eregl% on 

its present condition? 12. What celebrated men were born here ? 13. Where -was 
Nicomedia, and built by -whom ? 14. How was it distinguished, what was it under 
the Romans, for what is it chiefly memorable in history ? 15. Whose birthplace 
was Nicomedia? 16. Where was Chalcedon? By whom, and when founded? 
17. Through what changes did it pass ? 18. How is Chalcedon noted in eccle- 



ASIA MINOK. 217 

the S. shore of the Pontus Euxinus, on the territory of the 
Maryandini, was situated 20 stadia {2^ miles) IST. of the 
River Lycus,npon a little river called Acheron or Soonautes, 
near the base of a peninsula called Acherusia, and had a 
fine harbor. It was founded about 550 b. c., by colonists 
from Megara and from Tanagra in Boeotia, 

20. It reached the height of its prosperity in the reign 
of Darius Codomannus, when it had an extensive commerce, 
and a territory reaching from the Parthenius to the Sanga- 
rius. It began to decline in consequence of the rise of the 
kingdom of Bithynia and the foundation of Nicomedia, and 
the invasion of Asia Minor by the Gauls ; and its ruin was 
completed in the Mithridatic war, when the city was taken, 
plundered, and partly destroyed, by the Romans under 
Cotta. 

21. This city was the birthplace of Heraclides Ponticus, 
and perhaps of Zeuxis the painter. 

22. Bithynium, an inland town, first called Zipoetes, 
and in later times, Claudiopolis, was situated at the foot 
of Mt. Lyperos. 

23. It was noted for its fine pastures, its herds of choice 
cattle, and its excellent cheese, 

24. It was the birthplace of Hadrian's favorite Antinoiis. 

25. Other noteworthy cities of Bithynia were Dascy- 
lium: Scyllace: Myrlea- Cius, giving name to the 
Sinus Cianus, at the head of which it stood. Prusa, 
Upovcra eTTt t(3 OXv/xttw, built, some say, by Hannibal, more 
probably, according to others, by Prusias I. king of Bithynia : 
it is now called JBursa^ and is still a populous and flourish- 
ing city : Apollonia supra Rhyndacum: Astacus, a 
colony of Megara, enlarged by the Athenians, and by them 
called Olbia ov the Happ^ : Hellenopolis : Libyssa, 
noted for the tomb of Hannibal, and for its warm baths ; 
Chrysopolis, noyf iScutari : Cratea: HadrianopoliSj 
now £oU^ 

1. Paphlagonia was bounded by Bithynia on the W. 
and Pontus on the E., being separated from the former by 

Biastical history ? 19. Where was Heraclea Pontica, founded when and by 
■whom ? 20. When was it most prosperous, when did it decline, what completed 
its ruin ? 21. H. was the birthplace of whom ? 22. Where was Bithynium, ia 
earlier times how called, how subsequently? 23. For what was it noted? 24. 
Whose birthplace was it ? 25. Name some more cities of Bithynia. 

10 



218 ANCIi:NT GEOGMiArHY. 

the River Parthenius, and from the latter by the Halys : on 
the iST. by the Pontus Euxinus : on the S. it was divided by 
the chain of Mt. Olympus (according to others by Olgassys) 
from Phrygia, in the earlier times, but from Galatia after- 
wards. 

2. Paphlagonia was a mountainous country, being inter- 
sected from W. to E. by three chains of the Olympus 
system, namely the Olympus itself on the S. border, 
Olgassys in the centre, and a miaor chain, with no specific 
name, nearer to the coast. 

3. The belt of land between this last chain and the sea 
was very fertile, and the Greek cities of Amastris and 
Sinope brought a considerable commerce to its shore ; but 
the inland parts were chiefly covered with native forests, 
which were celebrated as hunting grounds. The country 
was famed for its horses and mules, and in some parts there 
were extensive sheepwalks ; and its rivers were particular- 
ly famous for their fish. 

4. Besides the Parthenius and the Halys, now the 
KizU-Irmcik^ the Amnias, now the Kostamhul-Tchai^ or 
Goh Irmak^ is the only other important river in Paphla- 
gonia: it is a tributary of the Halys. The Sesamus, the 
Euarchus, and the Z alec us are unimportant streams on 
the coast. 

5. The Paphlagonians, who aided the Trojans, un- 
der Pylaemenes, after whom the country was sometimes 
called Pylaemenia, were of the same race as the Cappa- 
docians, i. e. the Semitic or Syro-Arabian, and quite dis- 
tinct, in their language and customs, from their Thracian 
neighbors on the W. They were good soldiers, especially 
as cavalry ; but they were unci^Tlized and superstitious. 
The country had also other inhabitants, probably of a dif- 
ferent race, namely the Heneti and the Caucones; and 
Greek settlements were established on the coast at an early 
period. 

6. The Paphlagonians were first subdued by Croesus : 
under the Persian empire they belonged to the third 
satrapy: after Alexander's death they were allotted to 
Eumenes; afterwards Mithridates conquered them; after 
his fall the Romans added the IST. of Paphlagonia, along the 

1. How -was Paphlagonia bounded? 2. What was the face of the country? 
Name the mountains. 3. What was the nature of the soil, and what were the 
productions of the country ? 4. What rivers in Paphlagonia? 5. Of what race were 
the Paphlagonians, and what other inhabitants had the country ? 6. What politi- 



ASIA MINOE. 219 

coast, to Bithynia: the interior was left to native princes, 
as tributaries to Rome ; but the race of these princes be- 
coming soon extinct, the whole of Paphlagonia was made 
Koman, and Augustus made it a part of the province of 
Galatia. It was made a separate province under Constan- 
tine ; but the E. part, from Sinope to the Halys, was as- 
signed to Pontus, under the name of Hellespontus. 

PLACES IN PAPHLAGONIA. 

7. Sinope, the ruins of which are now called Sinoub, 
the most important of all the Greek colonies on the shores 
of the Euxine, stood on the W. headland of the great bay of 
which the delta of the River Halys forms the E. headland, 
and a little E. of the northernmost promontory of Asia 
Minor. Thus i^laced, and built on a peninsula, the neck of 
which formed the two fine harbors, it had every advan- 
tage for becoming a great maritime city. « 

8. Its foundation was referred mythically to the Argo- 
naut Autolycus ; but it appears in history as a very early 
colony of the Milesians. 

9. Having been destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the 
Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony from Miletus, 
B. c. 632, and soon became the greatest commercial city on 
the Euxine. Several colonies were established by the 
Sinopians on the adjacent coasts, the chief of which were 
Cotyora, Trapezus, and Cerasus. Its territory, called 
Sinopis, extended to the banks of the Halys. 

10. It remained an independent State, until it was 
taken, by an unexpected attack, by Pharnaces I., king of 
Pontus. It was the birthplace and residence of Mithridates 
the Great, who enlarged and beautified it. 

11. After an obstinate resistance to the Romans under 
LucuUus, B. c. 63, it was taken and plundered, and pro- 
claimed a free city. Shortly before the murder of Julius 
Caesar, it was colonized by the name of Juha Caesarea 
Felix Sinope, and remained a flourishing city, though it 
never recovered its former importance. At the time of 
Constantino it had greatly declined. 

12. Sinope was the native city of the renowned cynic 
philosopher Diogenes, and of the comic poet Diphilus. 

cal changes did the country experience ? 7. What and where was the most impor- 
tant city of Paphlagonia, and what were the advantages of its situation ? 8. "SVhat is 
said of its foundation ? 9. By whom was it destroyed, by whom and when restored, 
and what was its subsequent position ? 10. How did its independence terminate, 
who enlarged and beautified it ? 11. By what Roman general was it taken, and 



220 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

13. Other, less important, cities in Paphlagonia, were: 
1, Sesamus, on a little coast river of tlie same name ; botli 
called afterwards Amastris; 2, Cji or us, now ICidros, 
on the coast, between Amastris and the Prom. Carambis, a 
commercial settlement of the people of Sinope. It stood on 
or near the mountain of the same name, which is mentioned 
by the Romans as abounding in box trees; 3, Aboniti- 
chos, {A/Soivov Tct^os,) on the Euxine, with a harbor, after- 
wards called lonopohs, whence its modern name Ineboli, the 
birthplace of the pretended prophet Alexander, of whom 
Lucian has left us an account ; 4, Gangra, now Kankari, 
near the confines of Galatia, originally a fortress ; in the 
time of Deiotarus, a royal residence ; and under the later 
emperors, the capital of Paphlagonia ; 5, Erythini; 6, 
Aegialus; '7, Aeginetes; 8, Cimolis; 9.Pompeiopo- 
lis ; 10, Germanicopolis, perhaps only a later name of 
Gangra; 11, Andrapa; 12, Cratia. 

1. Pontus, having originally no specific name, was 
spoken of as the country Iv XIovtw, on the Pontus, {Euxinus,) 
and hence acquired the name of Pontus, which is first found 
in Xenophon's Anabasis. The term was used very indefi- 
nitely, until it became a Roman province, with fixed boun- 
daries. 

2. The name first acquired a political rather than a 
territorial importance, through the foundation of a new 
kingdom in the region designated by it, about the begin- 
ning of the 4th century b. c, by Ariobarzanes I. Under 
the succeeding line of kings the kingdom gradually grew 
in importance, until, under Mithridates YI., surnamed 
Eupator, the Great, it threatened the Roman empire in 
Asia. 

3. After the death of Pharnaces IL, b. c. 47, the 
treacherous son of Mithridates the Great, the reduced king- 
dom retained a nominal existence under his son Darius, who 
was made king by Antony in 39 b. c, but was soon de- 
posed ; anct" under Polemon I. and Polemon II., till about 
62 A. D., when the country was constituted by JVero a 

what were its fortunes under the Romans? 12. Sinope was the birthplace of 
whom ? 13. What other cities in Paphlagonia? 

1. Where was Pontus, and why was it so called ? 2. How did the name ac- 
quire political importance ? 3. When was it made a Roman province, and as such, 



ASIA MINOR. 221 

Roman province. Of this province the W. boundary was 
the river Halys, which di^ded it from Paphlagonia ; the 
farthest E. Hmit was the Phasis, which separated it from 
Colchis ; but others carry it only as far as Trapezus, and 
others to an intermediate point, at the river Acampsis ; on 
the S. it was divided from Galatia, Cappadocia, and Ar- 
menia Minor by the great chain of the Paryadres and by its 
branches. 

4. It was divided into the three districts ofPontusGa- 
laticus,in theW., bordering on Galatia : P. Polemonia- 
cus in the centre, so called from its capital, Polemonium; 
and P. Cappadociusin the E., bordering on Cappadocia, 
(Armenia Minor.) In the new division of the provinces 
under Constantino, these three districts were reduced to 
two, Helenopontusin the W., so called in honor of the 
emperor's mother, Helena, and Pontus Polemoniacus 
in the E. _ 

5. Pontus was a mountainous country ; wild and barren 
in the E., where the great chains approach the Euxine ; but 
in the W., watered by the great rivers Halys and Iris and 
their tributaries. The valleys between them, as well as the 
land along the coast, are extremely fertile. Besides corn 
and olives, it was famous for its fruit trees. Some of the 
best of our common fruits are said to have been brought to 
Europe from this quarter ; for example, the cherry. The 
sides of the mountains were covered with fine timber, and 
their lower slopes with box and other shrubs. The E. 
part was rich in minerals, and contained the celebrated 
iron mines of the Chalybes. 

6. The mountains in Pontus were : 1, the Paryadres, 
now the Kara-hel JDagh or Kuttagh^ the boundary between 
Pontus Cappadocius and Armenia Minor ; 2, the Antitau- 
rus, which, however, belongs more properly to Cappadocia. 

V. The principal rivers were: 1, the Phasis, famous in 
connection with the Argonautic expedition; 2, the Mogr o s, 
a navigable coast-river; 3, thelsis, {TschoroJc^) a navigable 
coast-river; 4, the Acampsis, the most important naviga- 
ble stream on this coast; 6, the Iris, a large river in the E. 
part, now Yeshil-Irmak ; 6, the Halys, no^^ Kizil-IrmaJc^ 
i. e. the Red Miver^ the greatest river in Asia Minor, which 
rises in Mount Paryadres, on the borders of Armenia Mi- 

how was it bounded ? 4. Into how many and what districts was it divided, and 
what new division was afterwards made ? 5. What was the face of the country, 
what its soil and productions ? 6. What mountains in Pontua ? 7. What were 



222 ANCIENT GEOaRAPHY. 

nor, and, after flowing W. by S. through Cappadocia, turns 
to the ^N". and flows through Galatia to the borders of Paph- 
lagonia, where it takes a N. E. direction, dividing Paphla- 
gonia from Pontus, and at last falls into the Euxine between 
Sinope and Amisus. 

8. Pontus was peopled by numerous tribes, belonging 
probably to very difierent races, though the Semitic (Syro- 
Arabian) race appears to have been the prevailing one, and 
hence the inhabitants were included under the general 
name of Leu cosy ri, i. e. White /Si/rians, sl name early 
applied by the Greeks to the inhabitants of Cappadocia, to 
distinguish them from the Syrian tribes of a darker color 
beyond the Taurus. Afterwards, when Cappadoces came 
to be the common name for the people of S. Cappadocia, 
the word Leucosyri was applied specifically to the people 
in the l!^. of the country, afterwards Pontus. 

CITIES AND. TOWNS IN PONTUS. 

9. Pontus was divided into smaller districts than those 
given above, named from the towns which they surrounded 
and the tribes who peopled them. It is not necessary to 
name them here. Among the principal cities of Pontus we 
mention first Amisus, now JSamsu^i, sl large city on the 
coast, on a bay of the Euxine, called after it Amisenus 
Sinus. Mithridates Eupator enlarged it, and made it one 
of his residences. 

10. Polemonium, now Puleman^ on the coast, was 
built by king Polemon II. on the site of the older city of 
Side, at the mouth of the river Sidenus, now the Pule- 
man Chai^ and at the head of a deep gulf, with a good 
harbor. 

11. Trapezus, now Tardbozan^ Trahezun^ or Trehi- 
zond^ a colony of Sinope, was at almost the extreme E. of 
the N". shore of Asia Minor. Afl:er Sinope lost her inde- 
pendence, Trapezus belonged first to Armenia Minor, and 
afterwards to the kingdom of Pontus. Under the Romans 
it was made a free city, probably by Pompey, and, by Tra- 
jan, the capital of Pontus Cappadocius. Hadrian con- 
structed a new harbor, and the city became a place of first 
rate commercial importance. It was also strongly fortified. 
It was taken by the Goths in the reign of Valerian ; but it 

the principal rivers? 8. What is said of the inhabitants of Pontus? 9. What 
other divisions of the country, and what and where was Amisus ? 10. Where 
and what was Polemonium? 11. What and where was Trapezus, belonged to 



ASIA MINOE. 223 

had recovered, and was in a flourishing state at the time of 
Justinian, who repaired its fortifications. 

12. In the middle ages it was for some time the seat of 
a fragment of the Greek empire, called the empire of Trebi- 
zond. It is now the second commercial port of the Black 
Sea, ranking next after Odessa. 

13. Themiscyra, now probably Thermeh^ was at the 
mouth of the Thermodon {Thermeh) in a plain on the coast, 
extending E. of the River Iris beyond the Thermodon, and 
celebrated from very ancient times as the country of the 
Amazons. This plain was well watered, and rich in pasture. 

14. Cotyora, a colony of Sinope, in the territory of 
the Tibareni, on the coast of P. Polemoniacus, was situate 
at the W. end of a bay of the same name, and celebrated 
as the place where the 10,000 Greeks, embarked for Sinope, 
on their way home. The foundation of Pharnacia reduced 
it to insignificance. 

15. Pharnacia, nor^ Kheresoun oxKerasunda^ a flour- 
ishing city on the coast of P. Polemoniacus, was built proba- 
bly on the site of Chaerades, probably by Pharnaces, the 
grandfather of Mithridates the Great, and peopled by the 
transference to it of the inhabitants of Cotyora. It had a 
large commerce and extensive fisheries ; and in its neigh- 
borhood were the iron mines of the Chalybes. It was 
strongly fortified, and was used by Mithradates, in the war 
with Rome, as a place of refuge for his harem. 

16. Cerasus, a flourishing colony of Sinope, on the 
coast, at the mouth of a river of the same name, was chiefly 
celebrated as the place from which Europe obtained both 
the cherry and its name. Lucullus is said to have brought 
back plants of the cherry with him to Rome ; but this re- 
fers probably only to some particular sorts, as the Romans 
seem to have had the tree much earlier. 

17. Amasia or -ea, now Amasiah^ the capital of the 
kings of Pontus, was a strongly fortified city on the banks 
of the river Iris. It was the birthplace of Mithridates the 
Great, and of the geographer Strabo. 

18. Zela or Ziela, now Zilleh^ in the S., not far S. of 
Amasia, stood on an artificial hill, according to Strabo, on 
the mound of Semiramis, and was a very ancient place. At 

whom, fared how under the Romans ? 12. What was it in the middle ages, and 
what is it now? 13. Where was Themiscyra, its plain celebrated for what? 14. 
What and where was Cotyora, and celebrated for what ? 15. What and where 
was Pharnacia? How used by Mithridates ? 16. What and where was Cerasus, 
and for what celebrated ? 17. What and where was Amasia, and whose birth- 



224: ANCIENT GEOGKAPHF. 

Zela tlie Roman general Yalerius Triarius was defeated b^ 

Mithridates ; but the city is more celebrated for another 
great battle, that in which Julius Caesar defeated Pharna- 
ces, and of which he wrote this despatch to Rome — " Veni: 
ViDi: Yici." 

19. Comana Pontica, the ruins at Guminih^ was a 
flourishing city on the river Iris, celebrated for its temple of 
Artemis Taurica, the foundation of which tradition ascribed 
to Orestes. The high-priest of this temple took rank next 
after the king, and their domain was increased by Pompey 
after the Mithridatic war. 

20. N'eocaesarea, now JSFiJcsar, the capital, under 
the Roman empire, of Pontus Polemoniacus, stood on the 
river Lycus, 63 Roman miles, E. of Amasia. It was a splen- 
did city, and is famous in ecclesiastical history for the coun- 
cil held there in 314 a. d. 

21. There were many other places of much less note in 
Pontus : among these maybe named Heracleum, Oe- 
noe, Eupatoria, Cabira^ Coenonchorion, Ischo- 
polls. 

8. — Etycim^ 

1. Lycia J a small but most interesting district on the 
S. side of Asia Minor, jutting out into the Mediterranean in 
a form ap]3roaching to a rough semicircle, is formed by the 
advance of the Pamphylium Mare on the E. and by the 
Glaucus Sinus on the W.; inland it was bounded, on the N'» 
W. by Caria and Phrygia : N. by Pisidia : E. by Pamphy- 
lia. Or, still more particularly : it was bounded on the IST. 
W. by the little river Glaucus, and the Gulf of the same 
name : on the E". E. by the mountain called Climax, (the IST. 
part of the same range as that called Solyma ;) and on the 
N". its natural boundary was the Taurus, but its hmits in this 
direction were not strictly defined. 

2. According to the tradition preserved by Herodotus^ 
the most ancient name of the country was Milyas, [r] MtX-ua?,) 
and the earliest inhabitants (probably of the Syro-Arabian 
race) were called Milyae, and afterwards Solymi: subse- 
quently the Termilae, from Crete, settled in the country ; 
and lastly, the Athenian Lycus, the son of Pandion, fled 

place ? 18. Where was Zela, how situated, for what celebrated ? 19. What and 
where. was Gomana Pontica, and for what celebrated? 20. What and where was 
Neocaesarea, and how famed in ecclesistical history ? 21. Name some other less 
noted cities in Pontus. 

1. Where was Lycia, and how bounded ? 2. What wa^ the earliest name of 



ASIA MINOE. 225 

from his brother Aegeus to Lycia, and gave his name to the 
country. Homer, who gives Lycia a prominent j)lace in 
the Iliad, represents its chieftains, Glaucus and Sarpedon, 
as descended from the royal family of Argos, (Aeolids :) he 
does not mention the name of Milyas ; and he speaks of the 
Solymi as a warUke race, inhabiting the mountains, against 
whom the Greek hero Bellerophon is sent to fight, by his « 
relative, the king of Lycia. 

3. Besides the legend of Bellerophon and the Chimaera, 
Lycia is the scene of another popular Greek story, that of 
the Harpies and the daughters of Pandarus. On the whole, 
it is clear, that Lycia was colonized by the Hellenic race, 
probably from Crete, at a very early period, and that its 
historical inhabitants were Greeks, though with a mixture 
of native blood. The earlier names were preserved in the dis- 
trict in the N. of the country, called Milyas, and in the moun- 
tains called Solyma. The Lycians always kept the reputa- 
tion they have in Homer, as brave warriors. They and the 
Cilicians were the only people W. of the Halys whom Croesus 
did not conquer, and they were the last who resisted the 
Persians. 

4. The IN", parts of Lycia and the district of Cibyratis 
formed together a high table-land, which is supported on 
the !N". by the Taurus, on the E. by the mountains called 
Solyma, (TaktaXu-Dagh^) which run from JST. to S. along 
the E. coast of Lycia, far out into the sea, forming the S. 
E. promontory of Lycia, called Sacrum Pr., {G. Kheli- 
doniaf) the summit of this range is 7,800 feet high, and is 
covered with snow : the S. W. and S. sides of this table- 
land are formed by the range called Massicytus, {Aktar 
Dagh^ which runs S. E. from the E. side of the upper 
course of the river Xanthus ; its summits are about 4,000 feet 
high ; and its S. side descends tow^ards the sea in a succes- 
sion of terraces, terminated by bold clifis. The mountain 
system of Lycia is completed by the Cragus , which fills up 
the space between the W. side of the Xanthus and the Gulf 
of Glaucus, and forms the S. W. promontory of Lycia : its 
summits are nearly 6,000 feet high. 

5. The chief rivers are the Xanthus, {Eehen-chai^) 
which has its sources in the table-land S. of the Taurus, and 



the country, the inhabitants how called, what is Homer's account ? 3. Lycia was the 
scene of what other popular Greek story, and what, on the whole, is clear as regards 
its settlement ? 4. By what mountains was the interior of Lycia encompassed? 
6, What rivers in Lycia, what was the character of soil, and what the pro- 

10* 



226 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

flows from N". to S. between the Cragus and the Massicytus 
and the Solyma mountains. The valleys of these and the 
smaller rivers, and the terraces above the sea in the S. of 
the country were fertile in corn, wine, oil, and fruits, and 
the mountain slopes were clothed with splendid cedars, firs, 
and plain trees : saffron also was one chief product of the 
land. 

PLACES IN LYCIA. 

6. The chief cities of Lycia were Xanthus, Patara, 
Myra, and Phaselis. 

7. Xanthus, the ruins of which are at Gunik, the 
most famous city of Lycia, stood on the W. bank of the 
river of the same name, 60 stadia {1^ miles) from its mouth. 

8. Twice in the course of its history it sustained sieges 
which terminated in the self-destruction of its inhabitants 
with their property, first against the Persians under Harpa- 
gus, and long afterwards against the Romans under Brutus. 
The city was never restored after its destruction on the 
latter occasion. 

9. Xanthus was rich in temples and tombs, and other 
monuments of a most interesting character of art. Among 
its temples the most celebrated were those of Sarpedon, and 
of the Lycian Apollo ; besides which there was a renowned 
sanctuary of Latona, near the river Xanthus, 10 stadia (a 
little more than a mile) from its mouth, and 602 stadia from 
the city. 

10. Patara, the ruins of which still bear the ancient 
name, was a flourishing seaport, on a promontory of the 
same name, 60 stadia (7^ miles) E. of the mouth of the 
Xanthus. 

11. It was early colonized by Dorians from Crete, and 
became a chief seat of the worship of Apollo, who had here 
a very celebrated oracle, which uttered responses in the 
winter only, and from whose son Patarus the name of the 
city was mythically derived. 

12. Myra or Myron, still called Myra by the Greeks, 
but Demhre by the Turks, (ruins,) under the later Rouiau 
emperors the capital of the province of Lycia, was built on 
a rock 20 stadia {2^ miles) from the sea, and had a port 
called Andriaca. 

ductions ? 6. What were the chief cities of Lycia ? 7. What and where was 
Xanthus 1 8, What remarkable event occurred twice in this city ? 9. For what 
works of art was Xanthus noted ? 10. What and where was Patara ? 11. By 
whom was it colonized, and for what juoted ? 12. What and where was Myra ? 



ASIA MINOE. 227 

13. St. Paul touched here on his voyage as a prisoner 
to Rome, and the passage where this is mentioned (Acts 
XXYII. 5, 6,) affords incidental proof that the place was 
then an important seaport. There are still magnificent 
ruins of the city, in great part hewn out of the rock. 

14. Phaselis, the ruins now called Tekrova, an im- 
portant seaport town, near the borders of Pamphyha, stood 
on the Gulf of PamphyHa, at the foot of Mount Solyma, in 
a narrow pass between the mountains and the sea. It was 
founded by Dorian colonists, and from its position, and its 
command of three fine harbors, it soon gained an extensive 
commerce. It did not belong to the Lycian confederacy, 
but had an independent government of its own. 

15. It became afterwards the headquarters of the pirates 
who infested the S. coast of Asia Minor, and was therefore 
destroyed by P. ServUius Isauricus ; and though the city 
was restored, it never recovered its importance. 

16. Other, less noted, cities of Lycia were : 1, Telmes- 
sus, now J/e^, inruins; 2, Pinara; 3, Tios; 4, Olym- 
pus; 5, Rhodia; 6, Comba; 7, Balbura; 8, Oene- 
anda; 9, Bubon. 

1. Pisidia was bounded by Lycia and Pamphylia on 
the S. ; Cilicia on the S. E. ; Lycaonia and Isauria (the latter 
often reckoned a part of Pisidia) on the E. and N". E. ; 
Phrygia Parorios on the N., where the boundary varied at 
different times, and was never very definite ; and Caria on 
the W. 

2. It was a mountainous region, formed by that part of 
the main chain of Mt. Taurus which sweeps round in a semi- 
circle parallel to the shore of the Pamphylicus Sinus ; the 
strip of shore itself, at the foot of the mountains, constitut- 
ing the district of Pamphylia. 

3. The inhabitants of the mountains were a warlike abo- 
riginal people, related apparently to the Isaurians and Cih- 
cians. They maintained their independence, under petty 
chieftains, against all the successive rulers of Asia Minor. 
The Romans never subdued the Pisidians in their mountain 

13. How is it noted in sacred history, affording proof of what ? What is said 
of its ruins ? 14. What and where- was Phaselis, by whom, founded, what the 
advantages of its situation ? 15. What were its subsequent fortune^ ? 16. What 
other cities in Lycia ? 

1, What were the boundaries of Pisidia ? 2. What sort of region was it ? 3. 



228 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHT. 

fortresses, though they took some of the towns on the out- 
skirts of their country ; for example, Antiochia, which was 
made a colony with the Jus Itahcum. The country is still 
inhabited by wild tribes, among whom travelling is dan- 
gerous ; and it is therefore little known. 

4. Ancient writers say that it contained, amidst its rug- 
ged mountains, some fertile valleys, where the olive flour- 
ished ; and it also produced the gum storax, some medicinal 
plants, and salt. 

5. On the S. slope of the Taurus several rivers flowed 
through Pisidia and Pamphylia into the Pamphylicus Sinus, 
the chief of which were the Oestrus, {Ak Sic,) and the 
Oatarrhactes, {Duden-Su ;) and on the N. the mountain 
streams form some large salt lakes, namely Asc a ni a or 
An ana, {Iloiran and Burdur^ S. W. of Antiochia: 
Oar alius, or Oaralitis, or Pasgusa, (X. of IBeyshehr^) 
S. E. of the former ; and Trogitis (Soghla) further to the 
S. E., in Isauria. 

6. Special names were given to certain districts, which 
are sometimes spoken of as parts of Pisidia, sometimes as 
distinct countries; namely, Cibyratis in the S. W. along 
the N. of Lycia ; and Cabalia, the S. W. corner of 
Cibyratis itself: Milyas, the district E. of Oibyratis, 
IN". E. of Lycia, and N. W. of Pamphylia; and Isauria, 
in the E. of Pisidia, on the borders of Lycaonia. 

CITIES IN PISIDIA. 

7. Termessus, also Telmessus, high up on the 
Taurus, in the pass through which the Oatarrhactes flowed, 
was almost impregnable by nature and art, so that even 
Alexander did not attempt to take it. 

8. renin a, now Gherme, ruins, a strongly fortified 
city, built on a precipitous rock in the Taurus range, and 
noted for repeated obstinate defences. It was made a 
colony under Augustus. 

9. Selge, one of the chief of the independent moun- 
tain cities of the country, stood on the S. side of Mt. Taurus, 
on the Eurymedon, just where the river breaks through the 
mountain chain. On a rock above it was a citadel named 
Kecr^eStoi/, in which was a temple of Hera. 

Whnt M'as the charactei- ftnd political condition of the inhabitants? 4. Wliat is 
said of the soil and productions ? 5. What is said of the rivers and salt lakes in the 
country? 6. What divisions of the country are mentioned ? 7. What and where 
waa Termessus 1 8. What and where was Cremna, and noted for what ? 9. What 



ASIA MINOE. 229 

10. Its inhabitants, who were the most warlike of the 
Pisidians, claimed descent from the Lacedaemonians, and 
inscribed the name Aa/ce8at/;tcov on their coins. They could 
bring an army of 20,000 men into the field, and, as late as 
the 5th century, we find them beating back a horde of 
Goths. 

11. Antiochia Pisidiae or ad Pisidiam,a consider- 
able city on the borders of Phrygia Paroreios and Pisidia : 
built by colonists from Magnesia ; declared a free city by 
the Romans after their victory over Antiochus the Great, 
B. c. 189: made a colony under Augustus, and called 
Caesarea. It was celebrated for the worship and the great 
temple of M^v 'ApKato?, the Phrygian Moon-god, which the 
Romans suppressed. 

12. Other places, of more or less note, in Pisidia, were 
Mylias: Pisiada: Uranopolis: Cretopolis: Sozo- 
polis: Corbasa: Lysinoe: Mandrupolis: Lagos: 
Bar is: Beudos Yetus:Darsa:Seleucia: Prostama: 
Adada: Olbasa: Orbanassa: Talbenda: Comana: 
Sandalium: Pednilissus or Pednilassus: Catenna: 
Cora: Lyrbe: Isaura: Themisonium: Selgassus or 
Sagalassus: Neapolis: Amblada: Apollonia. 



1. Pamphylia, in its original and more restricted 
sense, was a narrow strip of the S. coast of A. M., extend- 
ing in a sort of arch along the Sinus Pamphylius or 
Pamphylicus or Mare Pamphylium, now the Gulf 
of Adalia^ between Lycia on the W. and Cilicia on the E., 
and on the N. bordering on Pisidia. 

2. Its boundaries, as commonly stated, were Mt. Climax 
on the W., the River Melas on the E., and the foot of Mt. 
Taurus on the K. ; but the statements are not very exact. 
Strabo gives to the coast of Pamphylia a length of 640 
stadia, (80 miles,) from Olbia on the W. to Ptoleraais, some 
distance E. of the Melas, and he makes its width barely two 
miles, and there are still other difierent accounts. 

3. The chief rivers of Pamphylia, going from W. to E., 
were the Catarrhactes, now the2>W(^e;z-/iS'w/ Cestrus, 

and where was Selge, what citadel near, and what in it ? 10. For what were the 
inhabitants noted? ll. Where was Antiochia Pisidiae, celebrated for what ? 12. 
What other places in Pisidia ? 

1. What and where was Pamphylia? 2. What is to be said of its boundaries 



230 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

now the Ah-Bu ; Eurymedon, now the J5r«^n-ySw; and 
Me las, now ihQ ManaugatSu ; all navigable for some 
distance from then* mouths. 

4. The inhabitants were a mixture of races, whence their 
name Ila/x^TjAot, of all races (the genuine old form, the 
other in -tot is later.) Besides the aboriginal inhabitants, of 
the Semitic (Syro- Arabian) family, and Cilicians, there were 
very early Greek settlers and later Greek colonies in the 
land. Tradition ascribed the first Greek settlements to 
Mopsus, after the Trojan war, from whom the country 
was, in early times, called Mopsopia. 

5. Pamphylia was successively a part of the Persian, 
Macedonian, Graeco-Syrian, and Pergamene kingdoms, 
and passed by the will of Attains III. to the Romans, b. c. 
130, under whom it was made a province ; but this prov- 
ince of Pamphylia included also Pisidia and Isauria, and 
afterwards a part of Lycia. Under Constantine Pisidia was 
again separated from Pamphylia. 

CITIES IN PAMPHTIIA. 

6. Olbia was a fortress on the W. frontier of the coun- 
try, on the coast, W. of the river Catarrhactes ; probably 
on the same site as the later Attalia. 

7. Attalia, probably occupying, as has just been said, 
the site, now Laara^ of the more ancient Olbia, was founded 
by Attalus 11. Philadelphus, and subdued by the Romans 
under P. Servilius Isauricus. 

8. Sida or Side, the ruins of which are called by the 
Turks Eski Adalia, on the coast, a Httle W. of the river 
Melas, was an Aeolian colony from Cyme in Aeolis, and 
was the chief seat of the worship of Athena, who is repre- 
sented in its coins holding a pomegranate (a-ihrj) as the em- 
blem of the city. Arrian says that the colonists soon forgot 
their mother tongue, the Greek. In the division of the 
provinces under Constantine, it was made the capital of 
Pamphylia Prima,. 

9. Perga, Perge, an ancient and important city, lay 
a little inland, IST. E. of Attalia, between the rivers Catar- 
rhactes and Cestrus, 7^ miles from the mouth of the former. 
It was a celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis. On an 

and extent ? 3. WTiat -were the chief rivers of Pamphylia ? 4. What is said of 
the inhabitants and their name ? First Greek settlements ascribed to whom ? 
5. Through what political changes did the country pass ? 6. What and where was 
Olbia ? 7. Who fomided Attalia, and by whom was it subdued ? 8. Where and 
what was Side ? 9. Where was Perge, seat of whose worship, with what temple ? 



ASIA MINOR. 231 

eminence near the city stood a very ancient and renowned 
temple of the goddess, at which a yearly festival was cele- 
brated ; and the coins of Perga bear images of the goddess 
and her temple. Under the later Roman empire, it was the 
capital of Pamphylia Secunda. 

10. Perga was the first place in Asia Minor visited by 
the apostle Paul on his first missionary journey. Splendid 
ruins of the city, called Murtana^ are still visible about 16 
miles N". E. of Adalia. 

11. Aspendus,a strong and flourishing city, on the 
Eurymedon, Yi miles from its mouth, is said to have been 
a colony of the Argives. Under the Seleucidae it was capa- 
ble of furnishing 4,000 soldiers. 

12. Syllium was a strongly fortified town on a moun- 
tain, 5 miles from the coast, between Side and Aspendus. 

13. Other less notable towns in Pamphylia were, S ele u- 
cia, Capria, Lyrnessus, Jobia, Eudocia, Xyl- 
lene, and Lyrna. 

11,— €Ul€ia. 

1. Cilicia was bounded on the E. by Syria, on the IN". 
by Cappadocia and Lycaonia, on the IST. W. and !N". by Pi- 
sidia and Pamphylia. On all sides, except the W., it was 
enclosed by natural boundaries, namely, the Mediterranean 
on the S., Mons Amanus on the E., and Mons Taurus on 
the N. 

2. The W. part of Cilicia is intersected by the ofifehoots 
of the Taurus, while on its E. part the mountain chains en- 
close much larger tracts of level country ; and hence arose 
the division of the country into C. Aspera (KiAtKta rj rpap^eta, 
rough or mountainous C.) and C. Campestris, (K. y TreSias, 
level C.) The latter was also called C. Propria {r} l^tois K.) 

3. Numerous rivers descend from the Taurus : among 
these are the Pyramus, now the Jihan or Jayhan, one 
of the largest rivers of A. M. : the Sarus, now the Sei- 
han : the Cydnus, now the Tersoos-Chai^ a river cele- 
brated for the clearness and coldness of its water, by bath- 
ing in which Alexander nearly lost his life : the Calycad- 
nus,nowthe GhiuJc 8u: the Lamus, now the Lamas: 

10. How is Perga noted in sacred history, and what remains of it ? 11. What 
and where was Aspendus ? 12. What and where was Syllium ? 13. What other 
towns in Pamphylia 1 

1. How was Cilicia bounded ? 2. What was the physical character of the 



232 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

the Arymagdus: the Mel as, Munaugat-Su^ between 
Cilicia and Pamphylia. 

4. The E. division, through which most of the large 
rivers flow, was extremely fertile, and the narrower valleys 
of Cilicia Aspera contained some rich tracts of land : the 
latter district was famed for its fine breed of horses. 

5. Herodotus represents the first inhabitants of the 
country as being descended from the Syrians and Phoeni- 
cians. The mythical story derived their name from Cilix, 
the son of Agenor, who started, at his father's command, 
with his brothers Cadmus and Phoenix, to seek and 
bring back Europa, their sister, who had been abducted by 
Zeus, but settled on the banks of the Pyramus and gave 
the country his name. 

6. The country remained independent till the time of 
the Persian empire, under which it formed a satrapy, but 
appears to have been still governed by its native princes. 
Alexander subdued it on his march into Upper Asia ; and, 
after the division of his empire, it formed a part of the 
kingdom of the Seleucidae: its plains were settled by 
Greeks, and the old inhabitants were for the most part 
driven back into the mountains of C. Aspera, where they 
remained virtually independent, practising robbery by land 
and piracy by sea, till Pompey drove them from the sea in 
his war against the pirates, and erected the level country 
into a Roman province, b. g. 67-66. The mountain coun- 
try was not made a province till the reign of Vespasian. 
The people bore a low character among the Greeks and 
Romans. 

CITIES IN CILICIA. 

1. The following cities and towns lay on the coast of 
Cilicia : Pylae Syriae : Issus or Alexandria : Caesum : 
Hierocome : Epiphania Ciliciae : Flavias : Aegae : Serrepo- 
Hs : Mallus : Portus Pallorum : Margasa : Anchiale : Ze- 
phyrium : Soloe or Soli. 

8. In the interior of C. Campestris or Propria were 
the following cities: Tarsus: Adana or Antiochia ad 
Sarum : Mopsuestia : Anazarbus, Caesarea ad Anazarbum : 
Quinda : Mcopolis : Pindenissus : Erana : Sepyra : Com- 



country, giving rise to what divisions ? 3. What rivers in Cilicia ? 4. Whiat was 
the nature of the soil ? 5. Where does Herodotus place the origin of the first in- 
hahitants, and what is the mythical derivation of their name ? 6. Through what po- 
litical changes did the country pass, and what became the character of its inhabit- 
ants ? 7. What cities were On the coast of Cilicia ? 8. What cities in the interior 



ASIA MINOR. 233 

9. On the coast of C. Aspera were : Lamus : Sebaste : 
Coiycus : Poecile Rupes : Seleucia : Trachea or Tracheo- 
tis : Aphrodisias : Celendris : Seton : Myiis : Arsinoe : Me- 
lania : JSTagidus : Anemurium : Nephelis : Antiochia ad Ru- 
pem Cragiim : Selinus : Laertes : lotape : Hamaxia : fSye- 
dra : Coracesium : Cibyra Minor. 

10. In the interior of C. Aspera were: Kestri : Demi- 
tiopolis:, Philadelphia : Diocaesarea : Olbasa : iSTekika: 
Flaviopolis : Irenopolis : Augusta : Olba. Of all these we 
shall now proceed to notice the most important. 

I. ON THE COAST OF CILICIA PEOPEIA. 

11. Issus, at the S. E. extremity of Cilicia, near the 
head of the Issicus Sinus, and at the IsT. foot of the pass of 
Mons Aihanus, called the Syrian Gates, is memorable for 
the great battle in which Alexander defeated Darius Codo- 
mannus, b. c. 333, which was fought in a narrow valley 
near the town. It was at that time large and flourishing, 
but its importance was much diminished by the foundation 
of Alexandria in its neighborhood. Alexandria ad Is- 
sum, (Kara 'IcrcTov,) with a good harbor, is now Iskenderoon^ 
or Scanderoun. 

12. Epiphania or-ea, close to the Pylae Amanides, 
formerly called Oeniandus, probably owed its new name to 
Antiochus Epiphanes. Pompey repeopled this city with 
some of the pirates whom he had conquered. 

13. Mallus, a very ancient city, on a hill, a little E. of 
the mouth of the river Pyramus, was said to have been 
founded at the time of the Trojan war by Mopsus and Am- 
philochus. It had a port called Magarsa. 

14. Anchiale, also Anchialos, W". of the Cydnus 
near the coast, was said to have been built by Sardanapalus. 

15. Soli or Solo e , the site of which is now Mezetlu^ on 
the coast, between the rivers Lamus and Cydnus, was said 
to have been colonized by Argives and Lydians from 
Rhodes. It was a flourishing city in the time of Alexander, 
who fined its people 200 talents for their adhesion to the 
Persians. The city was destroyed by Tigranes, king of Ar- 
menia, who probably transplanted the inhabitants to Tigra- 
nocerta. * 

of Cilicia Canipestris or Propria ? 9. What cities on the coast of C. Aspera ? 10. 
WTiat cities iu the interior of C. Aspera ? 11. Where was Issus, memorable for 
■what? 12 ."Where was Epiphania, how repeopled by Pompej'-? 13. What and where 
was Mallus, said to have been founded when and by whom, and had what port? 
14. Where was Anchiale, said to have been built by whom ? 15. Where was Soli, 



234r ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

16. Pompey restored the city after his war with the 
pirates, and peopled it with the survivors of the defeated 
bands; and from this time forth it was called Pompei- 
opolis. 

17. It is celebrated in literary history as the birthplace 
of the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, of the comic poet 
Philemon, and of the astronomer and poet Aratus. 

18. Its name has been curiously perpetuated in the 
grammatical word so^ecfsm, (solecismus,) which is said to 
have been first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek 
spoken by the inhabitants of this city, or, as some say, of 
Soli in Cyprus. 

II. — IN THE INTEEIOE OF CILICIA CAMPESTRIS. 

19. Tarsus, Tarsos, now caUed Ter€us, the chief 
city of Cilicia, stood near the centre of C. Campestris, on 
the river Cydnus, about 12 miles above its mouth, in a very 
large and fertile plain at the foot of Mt. Taurus, the chief 
pass (Pylae Ciliciae) through which led down to Tarsus. 
It had thus the full benefit of the natural advantages of a 
fertile country, and the command of an important highway 
of commerce. It had also an excellent harbor, 12 miles 
from the city, which is now filled up with sand. 

20. The city was of unknown antiquity. Some ascribed 
its foundation to the Assyrian king Sardanapalus, others to 
Perseus, and others to the Argive chieftain Triptolemus, 
whose effigy appears on the coins of the city. All that can 
be determined with certainty seems to be, that it was a 
very ancient city of the Syrians, who were the earliest 
known inhabitants of this part of Asia Minor, and that it 
received Greek settlers at an early period. In the time of 
Xenophon it was the capital of the Cilician province of 
Syennesis, and was taken by Cyrus. 

21. At the time of the Mithridatic war, it suffered both 
from Tigranes and from the pirates of Cilicia Aspera. 
From both these enemies it was rescued by Pompey, who 
made it the capital of the new Roman province of Cilicia, 
B. c. 66. 

22. In the Civil war, it took part with Caesar, and as- 

colonized by whom, and -what was it in time of Alexander, destroyed by -whom? 
16. How came it to be restored, under what name ? 17. How is it celebrated In 
literary history? 18. In What cm-ions manner has its name been perpetuated? 
19. What and where was Tarsus, with what advantages of situation ? 20. What 
is said of its antiquity and its reputed founders ? 2L Pompey rendered it what 
service, and made it what ? 22. What course did ft pursue, and how did it fare in 



ASIA MINOR. 235 

sumed, in his honor, the name of Juliopolis. For this 
the inhabitants were severely punished by Cassius, bnt were 
recompensed by Antony, who made Tarsus a free city. 
Under Augustus, the city obtained immunity from taxes, 
through the influence of the emperor's tutor, the Stoic 
Athene dor us, who was a native of the place. 

23. There was a noted school of philosophy at Tarsus. 
Among the most distinguished natives of the place were : 
the Stoics Antipater, Archedemus, Herachdes, Nestor, and 
Zeno ; the academic, Nestor ; the Epicureans, Diogenes, 
celebrated for his powers of improvising, Lysias, and Plu- 
tiades ; the grammarians, Artemidorus, Diodorus, and Her- 
mogenes ; the physicians, Herodotus and Philo ; and, above 
all, the apostle Paul, who owed his Koman citizenship to 
his birth in this free city. 

24. Mo]3Suestia, (M-oxj/ov ecrrta, the Hearth of Mopstcs,) 
called Mamistra in the middle ages, now Missis^ an im- 
portant city, on both banks of the river Pyramus, a little 
more than 11 statute miles from its mouth, on the road 
from Tarsus to Issus, in the beautiful plain called to 'AAtjIov 
TreStW, was a civitas libera under the Eomans. The two 
parts of the city were connected by a handsome bridge 
built by Constantius over the Pyramus. In ecclesiastical 
history it is notable as the birthplace of Theodore of Mop- 
Buestia. 

25. Anazarbus was on the left bank of the Pyramus, 
at the foot of Mons Anazarbus. 

26. Augustus conferred upon it the name of Caesarea^ 
(ad Anazarbum y) and on the division of Cilicia into the two 
provinces of Prima and Secunda, it was made the capital 
of the latter. It was almost destroyed by earthquakes in 
the reigns of Justinian an^Justin. 

27. Sebaste, on the coast, was built for a residence by 
Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, to whom the Romans had 
granted the sovereignty of Cilicia, and was named in honor 
of Augustus. It stood W. of the river Lamus, on a small 
island called Eleousa, the name of which appears to have 
been afterwards transferred to the city. The ruins are at 
Ayash. 

28. Seleucia Trachea or Tracheotis, the ruins of 

the Civil war? 23. Name eome of the most distinguished, natives of Tarsus. 24, 
Where and what was Mopsuestia, the parts how connected, how noted in eccle- 
siastical history ? 25. Where was Anazarbus ? 26. Who changed its name, and 
how, what did it become, and what calamity befell it? 27. Where was Sebaste, 
built for whom, stood where ? 28. Seleucia Trachea, built by whom, where, was 



236 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

which are called SelefJceh^ was built by Seleucus I., Mcator 
on the W. bank of the river Calycadnus, about 4 miles 
from its mouth, and peopled with the inhabitants of several 
neighboring cities. 

29. It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games in 
honor of Zeus Olympius. 

30. This city vied with Tarsus in power and splendor, 
and was a free city under the Romans. In political his- 
tory it is remarkable as the place where Frederick Barba- 
rossa died: in literary history, as the birthplace of the 
philosoi)hers Athenaeus and Xenarchus, of the sophist 
Alexander, the secretary of M. Aurel. Antoninus. On its 
site are still seen the ruins of temples, porticoes, aque- 
ducts, and tombs. 

31. Selinus, now jSelenti, -was situated on the coast 
and upon a rock which was almost entirely surrounded by 
the sea. In consequence of the death of the emperor Trajan 
in this town, it was for a long time called Trajanopohs. 

32. Cor yens, the ruins of which are opposite the 
island oi Khorgos^ lay between the mouths of the Lamus 
and the Calycadnus, and had a good harbor. Two and a 
half miles from the city was a grotto or cavern in the 
mountains called the Corycian Cave, celebrated by the 
poets. At the distance of 12^- miles from Corycus was a 
promontory of the same name. 

33. Coracesium, now Alayci^ a very strong city on 
the borders of Pamphylia, stood upon a steep rock, and 
possessed a good harbor. It was the only place in Cilicia 
that opposed a successful resistance to Alexander, and, after 
its strength had been tried more than once in the wars of 
the Seleucidae, it became at last the headquarters of the 
Cilician pirates, and was taken by Pompey. 

34. The only town in the interior of C. Aspera which 
it is important to notice, is 01b a or Olbe, situated in the 
mountains above Soli, and betvv^een the rivers Lamus and 
Cydnus. Its foundation was ascribed by mythical tradi- 
tion to Ajax, the son of Teucer, whose alleged descendants, 
the priests of the very ancient temj)le of Zeus, once ruled 
over all Cilicia Aspera. 

how peopled ? 29. It had -what oracle, and what games ? 30. How is it noted in 
political, and how in literary history ? 31. Where was Selinus, also called by what 
other name, and why ? 32. Where was Corycus, what cave in its vicinity, what 
promontory not far from it ? 33. Where was Coracesium, noted for what, became 
at last what ? 34. Where was Olba, its foundation ascribed to whom, of whose 
descendants what is said ? 



ASIA MINOK. 237 



1. Phrygia was of very different extent at different 
periods. According to the division of the provinces under 
the Roman empire, Phrygia formed the E. part of the 
province of Asia, and was bounded on the W. by Mysia, 
Lydia, and Caria, on the S. by Lycia and Pisidia, on the 
E. by Lycaonia, (which is often reckoned as a part of 
Phrygia,) and Galatia, (which formerly belonged to Phrygia, 
giving it Pontus and Cappadocia for its eastern boundary,) 
and on the N. by Bithynia. 

2. With reference to its physical geography, it formed 
the W. part, as Cappadocia did of the eastern, of the great 
central table-land of Asia Minor, supported by the chains 
of Olympus on the IsT. and Taurus on the S., and breaking 
on the W. into the ridges which separate the great valleys 
of the Hermus, the Maeander, &c., and which form the 
headlands of the W. coast. 

3. This table-land itself was intersected by mountain- 
chains, and watered by the upper courses and tributaries 
of the rivers just mentioned in its W". part, and in its N. 
part by those of the Rhyndacus and Sangarius. These 
parts of the country were very fertile, especially in the 
valley of the Sangarius, but in the S. and E. the streams 
which descend from Taurus lose themselves in extensive 
salt marshes and salt lakes, some of which are still famous, 
as in ancient times, for their manufactures of salt. 

4. The Phrygians were a distinct and remarkable 
people, whose origin is one of the most difficult problems 
of antiquity. They claimed a very high antiquity. Al- 
though, among the various accounts and traditions found 
in Homer, Herodotus, and later writers, any near approach 
to certainty is hopeless, it would seem that they were a 
branch of the great Thracian family, settled, in times of 
unknown antiquity, in the N. W. of Asia Minor, as far as 
the shores of the Hellespont and Proj^ontis, and perhaps 
of the Euxine, and that the successive migrations of other 
Thracian peoples, as the Thyni, Bithyni, Mysians, and Teu- 
crians, drove them further inland, till, from this cause, and 
perhaps too by the conquests of the Phrygian kings in the 

1. What is to be said of the extent or boundaries of Phrygia ? 2. What arc the 
prominent features of its physical geography? 3. What was the character of this 
great table-land ? 4. What do we knoAV of the origin of the Phrj^gians ? 6. By 



238 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHT. 

opposite direction, they reached the Halys on the E. and 
the Taurus on the S. 

5. The kingdom of Phrygia was conquered by Croesus, 
and formed part of the Persian, Macedonian, and Syro- 
Grecian empires ; but, under the last, the J^. E. jDart, ad- 
jacent to Paphlagonia and the Halys, was conquered by 
the Gauls, and formed the W. part of Gat.atia, and a part 
W. of this, containing the richest portion of the country, 
about the Sangarius, was subjected by the kings of Bi- 
thynia. This last portion was the object of a contest be- 
tween the kings of Bithynia and Pergamus, but at last, by 
the decision of the Romans, it was added, under the name 
of Pheygia Epictetus, (<I>. eTTtKTT/ros, i. e., the acquired 
I^hrygia.) to the kingdom of Pergamus, to which the 
whole of Phrygia was assigned by the Romans, after the 
overthrow of Antiochus the Great, in b. c. 190. 

6. TTith the rest of the kingdom of Pergamus, Phrygia 
passed to the Romans by the testament of Attains III., and 
thus became a part of the province of Asia, b. c. 130. 

7. As regards the distinctive names, the inland district 
usually understood by the name of Phrygia, when it occurs 
alone, was called Great Phrygia or Phrygia Proper, in 
contradistinction to the Lesser Phrygia, or Phrygia on 
THE Hellespont ; and of this Great or Proper Phrygia, 
the N. part was, as stated above, called Phrygia Epictetus, 
and the S. part, adjacent to the Taurus, was called, from its 
position, Phrygia Parorios, (^. Trapopio?.) 

8. At the division of the provinces in the 4th century, 
Phrygia Parorios, also called P. Pisidicus, was assigned to 
Pisidia ; and the S. W. portion, about the Maeander, to 
Caria ; and the remainder was divided into P. Salutaris 
on the E., with Synnada for its capital, and P. Pacatiana 
on the W., extending K. and S. from Bithynia to Pamphylia. 

9. Phrygia was rich in products of every kind. Its 
mountains furnished gold and marble : its valleys, oil and 
wine : the less fertile hills in the W. afibrded pasture for 
sheep, whose wool was highly celebrated ; and the marshes 
of the S. E. furnished abundance of salt. 

10. The mountains which either surround or extend into 
Phrygia, W' ere : — 1, Olympus; 2, Didymus; 3, Cad- 

whom -was Phrygia, or different parts of it, conquered ? 6. How did Phrygia be- 
come a Roman province, and when ? 7. Aa regards the distinctive names "of dif- 
ferent divisions of the countrj'^, how were they applied ? 8. What division of the 
provinces did the Romans make in the 4th century? 9. In what products did 



ASIA MINOR. 239 

mus, a continuation of the Pamphylian Taurus ; 4, Me- 
sogis, Mesogys, or Mesogaia, (Meo-oyaia,) traversing 
Phrygia Proper like a girdle. 

11. The rivers of Phrygia were : — 1, the Maeander; 
2, the Hermus; 3, the Indus, now the Quingi or Tavas / 
4, the Mar sy as, modern name not given; 5, the Lyons 
now the Ghoruk Su ; 6, the Rhyndacus, now the 
JLupad, 

CITIES rtf SOUTHEEiq^ AND CENTRAL PHRYGIA. 

12. Celaenae, the greatest city-of S. Phrygia, before 
the rise of its neighbor, Apamea Cibotus, reduced it to in- 
significance, lay at the sources of the rivers Maeander and 
Marsyas. 

13. In the midst of it was a citadel built by Xerxes, on 
a precipitous rock, at the foot of which, in the agora of the 
city, the Marsyas took its rise, and near the river's source 
was a grotto celebrated by tradition as the scene of the 
punishment of Marsyas by Apollo. 

14. Outside of the city was a royal palace, with pleasure 
gardens and a great park full of game, which was generally 
the residence of a satrap. The Maeander took its rise in the 
Tery palace, and flowed through the park and the city, be- 
low which it received the Marsyas. 

15. ApamcaCibotus or adMaeandrum, on the Mae- 
ander, close above its confluence with the Marsyas, was 
built by Antiochus I. Soter, who named it in honor of his 
mother Apuma, and peopled it with the inhabitants of the 
neighboring Celaenae. 

16. It became one of the greatest cities of Asia within 
the Euphrates ; and under the Romans it was the seat of a 
Conventus Juridicus. 

17. Colossae, the ruins of which are called Khonas^ 
on the river Lycus, was once a city of great importance, 
but became so reduced by the rise of the neighboring cities 
of Laodicea and HierapoUs, that the later geographers do 
not even mention it, and it might have been forgotten but 
for its place in the early history of the Christian Church. 

18. Laodicea ad Lycum, the ruins of which are now 

Phrj'gia abound ? 10. Whatmountains in Phrygia? 11. What rivers In Phrygia? 
12. What and where was Celaenae ? 13. What was in the midst of it, and what 
near the river's source, celebrated for what? 14. What was outside, residence of 
whom, Maeander rose where? 15. Where was Apamea Cibotus, built by whom ? 
Named after whom, how peopled ? 16. It became what, was what under the Ro- 
mans ? 17. Where was Colossae, it became what, its memory was how preserved ? 
18. Where and bow was Laodicea ad Lycum situated, by whom founded, after 



240 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

called JEsJci-Hissar^ stood on a ridge of hills near the S. bank 
of the river Lycus, {Choruh-Su,) a little to the W. of Colos- 
sae, and to the S. of Hierapolis, on the borders of Lydia 
and Caria. It was founded by Antiochiis II. Theos, on 
the site of a previously existing town, and named in honor 
of his wife Lao dice. Under the later Roman emperors it 
was the capital of Phrygia Pacatiana. 

19. This city suffered much from frequent earthquakes, 
and also from the Mithridatic war. Although it was more 
than once almost destroyed by earthquakes, it was restored 
by the aid of the emperors and the munificence of its own 
citizens, and became, next to Apamea, the greatest city in 
Phrygia, and one of the most flourishing in Asia Minor. In 
an inscription it is called "the most splendid city of Asia," 
a statement confirmed by the magnificent ruins of the city, 
which comprise an aqueduct, a gymnasium, several theatres, 
a stadium almost perfect, besides remains of roads, porticoes, 
pillars, gates, foundations of houses, and sarcophagi. 

20. Already in the apostolic age it was the seat of a 
flourishing Christian church, which, however, became very 
soon infected with the pride and luxury produced by the 
prosperity of the city, as appears from Rev. III., 14-22. 

21. Hierapolis, near the Maeander, N. of Laodicea, 
!N". W. of Colossae, was celebrated for its hot springs, and 
its temple of Cibele. It was an early seat of Christianity, 
and is mentioned in St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians, 
(lY. 13.) 

22. Synnada, also Synnas, of which the ruins are 
probably at Eshi-Kara-Hisar^ was in the !I:^. of Phrygia 
Salutaris, of which it was, from the time of Constantine, the 
capital. 

23. It stood in a fruitful plain, planted with olives, near 
a mountain from which was quarried the very celebrated 
Synnadic marble, which was of a beautiful white, with red 
veins and spots. 

24. Peltae in the IST., 40 miles from Celaenae, about 28 
miles IN", or ]^. E. of Apamea Cibotus, was no doubt the 
same place as the Pell a of the Roman writers, and be- 
longed to the Conventus of Apamea Cibotus. 

25. Polybotus was E. of Synnada. 

whom named, what was it trnder the later Roman emperors? 19. It often stifFered 
from what, by whom restored, its splendor is confirmed by what? 20. How is it 
noted in connection with Christianity? 21. Where was Hierapolis, celebrated 
for what, how noted in ecclesiastical history ? 22. Where was SjTinada, and the 
capital of what division ? 23. How was it situated, and noted for what ? 24. 



ASIA MINOR. 241 

26. Ipsus, tlie site of which is unknown, appears to 
haTe been about the centre of Phrygia, not far from Syn- 
nada. It is celebrated in history as the scene of the deci- ^ 
sive battle which closed the great contest between the 
generals of Alexander for the succession to his empire, and 
in which Antigonus was defeated and slain, b. c. 301. 

27. Philomelium, the ruins of which are called Ak- 
fShehr, a city of Phrygia Parorios, on the borders of Lycao- 
nia and Pisidia, is said to have been named from the num- 
bers of nightingales in its neighborhood. It is still found 
mentioned at the time of the Crusades, by the name of 
Philomene. 

28. Docimia or Docimeum, was not far from Syn- 
nada ; in its neighborhood were celebrated marble quarries. 

CITIES IN PHRYGIA EPICTETUS. 

29. Midaeum, between Dorylaeum and Pessinus, is 
noted as the place where Sextus Pompeius was captured 
by the troops of Antony, b. c. 35. 

30. Dorylaeum, now Eski-Bhehr^ on the river Thym- 
bris, possessed warm baths, which are used at the present 
day. It was important under the Romans as the place 
from which the roads diverged to Pessinus, Iconium and 
Apamea. 

31. Cotyaeum, now Mktaya or Kutaieh^ a Turkish 
town of considerable importance, was S. W. of Dorylaeum. 
Suidas says that, according to some accounts, it was the 
birthplace of Aesop. Alexander, a grammarian of great 
learning, and a voluminous writer, was born in this city. 

32. Nacolia, now Bidighctsi^ on the W. bank of the 
river Thymbris, between Dorylaeum and Cotyaeum, was 
the place where the emperor Valens defeated his rival 
Procopius, A. D. 366, 

33. Other towns in Phrygia were : 1. In Great Phrygia: 
Metropolis, the most ancient capital, but in historical 
times an inconsiderable place : its position is doubtful : 
Tripolis: Carura : Melisse: Mosyna: Attyda: 
Ceretapa: Trapezopolis: Tabae : Tabuzion. 2. In 

"Where was Peltae, identical witli wtiat ? 25. Where was Polybotus 1 26. Where 
was Ipsus, and how noted in history ? 27. Where was Philomelium, why so 
called, how named in the history of the Crusades ? 28. Where was Docimea, and 
what was in its neighborhood ? 29. Where was Dorylaeum, possessing what, 
and under the Romans important for what ? 30. Where was Midaeum, and noted 
in history for what ? 31. Where was Cotyaeum, according to some, the birthplace 
of whom, of whom certainly? 32. Where was Nacolia, and noted for what his- 
torical event ? 33. What other towns in Phrygia ? 
11 



242 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

Phrygia Epictetus: Cadi: Eumenia: Stertorium: 
Pepiiza: Dionysopolis: Aziini, ou the Rhyndacus, 
20 miles S. W. of Cotyaeum : the ruins of cohimns, capitals, 
and other architectural fragments are scattered over the 
ground. Many others, a large proportion of which are of 
more recent date, and all of small importance, might be 
named. 

IS.—Galatia. 

1. Galatia, now Anadoli, (E. part,) and Humeli, (W. 
part,) composed of parts of Phrygia and Cappadocia, was 
bounded on the W. by Phrygia : N. W. and N. by Bithy- 
nia and Paphlagonia : IST. E. by Pontus : S. or S. E. by Cap- 
padocia. 

2. It derived its name from its inhabitants, who were 
Gauls that had invaded and settled in Asia Minor at various 
periods during the 3d century b. a 

3. First, a portion of the army which Brennus led 
against Greece, separated from the main body, and marched 
into Thrace and having pressed forward as far as the shores 
of the Propontis, some of them crossed the Hellespont on 
their own account, while others, who had reached Byzan- 
tium, were invited to pass the Bosporus, by Nicomedes I., 
king of Bithynia, who required their aid against his brother 
Zipoetus, B c. 279. 

4. They speedily overran all Asia Minor within the 
Taurus, and exacted tribute from its various princes, and 
served as mercenaries, not only in the armies of these 
princes, but also of the kings of Syria and Egypt, and a 
body of them even foimd their way to Babylon. During 
their ascendancy, other bodies of Gauls followed them into 
Asia. 

5. Their progress was at length checked by the arms 
of the kings of Pergamus: Eumenes fought against them 
with various fortune ; but Attains I. gained a complete vic- 
tory over them, b. c. 230, and compelled them to settle 
down within the limits of the country thenceforth called 
Galatia. 

6. The people of Galatia adopted to a great extent 

1. What was Galatia, and how was it hounded? 2. It derived its name from 
whom, they being what, and settling when in Asia Minor ? 3. What brought these 
Gauls into Asia Minor? 4. What was the course pursued by the Gauls in Asia 
Minor ? 5. How was their progress checked, and what wei-e they compelled to do ? 
6. Tlie people of Galatia adopted whose habits and manners, &c., preserving what, 



ASIA MmoE. 243 

Greek habits and manners and religious observances, but 
preserved their own language, which is spoken of as re- 
sembling that of the Treviri. They retained also their politi- 
cal divisions and forms of government. 

7. They consisted of three great tribes, the Tolistobogi, 
the Trocmi, and the Tectosages, each subdivided into four 
parts, called by the Greeks rcTpapxcaL. At the head of each 
of these twelve Tetrarchies was a chief, or Tetrarch, who 
appointed the chief magistrate, and the commander of the 
army, and two lieutenant-generals. The twelve tetrarchs 
together had the general government of the country, but 
their power was checked by an assistant senate of three 
hundred. 

8. Galatia became virtually subject to the Romans as 
the result of the campaign which the consul Cn. Manlius 
undertook against the Gauls, to punish them for the as- 
sistance they had given to Antiochus the Great, b. c. 189. 
At length one of the tetrarchs, Deiotarus, was rewarded 
for his services to the Romans in the Mithridatic war, with 
the title of king, together with a grant of Pontus and Ar- 
menia Minor. In 25 b. c. Augustus made Galatia a Roman 
province. It was soon after enlarged by the addition of 
Paphlagonia. 

9. Under Constantino it was restricted to its old limits, 
and under Valens it was divided into two provinces, Gala- 
tia Prima and Galatia Secunda. 

10. The country was beautiful and fertile, being watered 
by the rivers Halys, (Kizil-IrmaTc,) and the Sangarius, 
(haJcaria) 

11. Its only important cities were Pessinus, Ancyra, 
and Tavium. 

12. Pessinus, the ruins of which are called JBala His- 
sar^ the capital of the Tolistobogi, was in the S. W. corner 
of the country, on the S. slope of Mt. Dindymus or Agdistis, 
was celebrated as a chief seat of the worship of Cybele, under 
the surname of Agdistis, whose temple, crowded with 
riches, stood on a hill outside the city, Cybele, (Rhea,) 
was also surnamed Dindymene, from the other name of Mt. 
Agdistis. 

13. In this' temple was a wooden (Livy says stone) 

and retaining -what ? 7. These Gauls consisted of how manytribes, how called, how 
subdivided, with what arrangements ? 8. How did Galatia come into the power of 
the Romans? 9. What change was made in its hmits under Constantine? Under 
Valens how divided? 10. What sort of country was Galatia, and what were its 
rivers? 11. What were the important cities of Galatia? 12. Wliere was Pessi- 



244: ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

image of the goddess, which was removed to Rome, to 
satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books. 

14. Under Constantine the city was made the capital of 
the province of Galatia Salutaris, but it gradually declined 
until the 6th century, after which it is no more mentioned. 

15. Ancyra, now Angora^ situated in N. lat. 39° 56', 
in long. 32° 56', the most important city of Galatia, was, in 
the time of Augustus, the capital of the province ; it was 
originally the chief city of the Tectosages. 

16. Under the Roman empire it was called Sebaste, 
which in Greek is equivalent to Augusta in Latin. 

17. When Augustus recorded the chief events of his life 
in bronze tablets at Rome, the citizens of Ancyra had a 
copy made, which was cut on marble blocks and placed at 
Ancyra in a temple dedicated to Augustus and Rome. 
This inscription is called the Monumentum Ancyranum, 
The Latin inscription was first copied by Tournefort in 
1701, and it has been copied several times since. One of 
the latest copies has been made by Mr. Hamilton, who also 
copied as much of the Greek inscription as is legible. 

18. Tavium, the remains of which are probably at 
Boghaz Kieni^ was the capital of the Trocmi, stood on the 
E. side of the Halys, but at some distance from the river, 
and formed the centre of meeting for roads leading to all 
parts of Asia Minor. It was therefore a place of considera- 
ble commercial importance. It had a temple and bronze 
Colossus of Zeus. 

19. Many other places in Galatia, most of them of very 
little note, might be mentioned. Among these the more 
important were: Delemna: Corbeus: Gordium,also 
called Juliopolis, (also reckoned to Phrygia,) the scene of 
Alexander's celebrated exploit of " cutting the Gordian 
Knot." It was IST. of Pessinus, on the isT. bank of the San- 
garius: Germa; and Da das tana, where the emperor 
Jovian died. 

14. — Etycaonia, 

1. Lyca6nia,a part of what is now Karaman^y^^^ as- 
signed, under the Persian empire, to the satrapy of Cappa- 

nus, whose capital, and celebrated as what ? 13. What was in this temple, 
brought to Rome for what reason ? 14. Pessinus became what under Constantine, 
and what became of it ? 15. Where and what was Ancyra, originally whose 
capital ? 16. What was its name under the empire ? 17. For what important his- 
torical relic is Ancyra noted ? 18. What and where was Tavium, and had what ? 
19. What other places may be mentioned in Galatia ? 



ASIA MINOK. 245 

docia, but considered by the Greek and Roman geographers 
the S. E. part of Phrygia. It was bounded on the N. by 
Galatia, on the E. by Cappadocia, on the S. by Cilicia As- 
pera, on the S. W. by Isauria, which was sometimes reck- 
oned as a part of it, and by Phrygia Paroreios, and on the 
N. W. by Great Phrygia. 

2. It was a long narrow strip of country, its length ex- 
tending in the direction of N. "W". and S. E. : Xenophon, 
who first mentions it, describes its width as extending E. of 
Iconium, its chief city, a distance of 30 parasangs, about 
110 miles. It forms a table-land between the Taurus and 
the mountains of Phrygia, deficient in good water, but 
abounding in flocks of sheep. 

3. The people seem to have been an aboriginal race, 
speaking a distinct dialect of their own; they were warlike, 
and especially skilled in archery. After having been sub- 
ject to several different powers, it passed, with Galatia, to 
the Romans, and was finally united to the province of Cap- 
padocia. 

4. In the N. of the country, on the confines of Phrygia, 
Galatia, and Cappadocia, was the great salt lake, called 
Tatta, now Tuz-Gol or 6^A^ew?, which still supplies the 
whole surrounding country with salt, as it did in ancient 
times. 

5. Lycaonia was the chief scene of the labors of the 
apostle Paul on his first mission to the Gentiles. 

CITIES IN LYCAONIA. 

6. Iconium, now JTonyeh, the capital, was, when visited 
by St. Paul, a flourishing city, with a mixed population of 
Jews and Greeks : under the later emperors it became a 
colony, and was, in the middle ages, one of the greatest 
cities of Asia Minor, and important in the history of the 
Crusades. 

7. Other cities in Lycaonia were : 1, E. of Iconium, Ba- 
rathus or Barata. 2, S. of the latter, Misthia and La- 
randa. 3, N. of Iconium, Paralais, Canae, Cadyna, 
Petra, Tatta, Pregella,and Congussus. 4, S. W. 



1. To what provinces was Lycaonia reckoned, and howwas it bounded? 2. 
What sort of country was it, extending how, first mentioned by -whom, and form- 
ing what ? 3. By what sort of people was it inhabited, when did it come into the 
possession of the Romans ? 4. What remarkable lake in Lycaonia ? 5. How is 
Lycaonia noted in ecclesiastical history ? 6. What and where was Iconium, had 
what sort of population, was what under the Romans, and how noted in the 
Middle Ages ? 7. What other cities in Lycaonia ? 



246 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

of these, Laodicea Combusta, (AaoStKcta KaTaKeKavfxivt],) 
said to have owed its name to subterranean fires, which 
here frequently burst forth from the ground, Tyriaeum. 
5, Between the latter and Iconium, Lystra. 6, S. E. of 
the latter, Derbe; both noted in sacred history as places 
where St. Paul preached on his first mission to the gentiles. 

1 5.~ Cappadocia. 

1. Cappadocia had dilSerent boundaries at different 
times. Under the Persian empire it included the whole 
country inhabited by a people of Syrian origin, who were 
called, from their complexion. White Syrians, (AevKoo-vpot,) 
and also Cappadoces, a word, probably of Persian origin, 
but said, by some, to have originated with the Greeks, and 
to have been derived by them from the name of the river 
Cappadox, in the N. W. Their country seems to have em- 
braced the whole N. E part of Asia Minor E. of the Halys 
and N. of the Taurus. It was afterwards divided into two 
parts, which were immed respectively from their proximity 
to the Euxine and to the Taurus, the N. part being called 
Cappadocia ad Pontum, and then simply Pontus, the 
S. part Cappadocia ad Taurum, and then simply 
Cappadocia : the former was also called Cappadocia Mi- 
nor, and the latter Cappadocia Major. The latter, 
with which we are here more particularly concerned, was 
bounded N". by Galatia, Pontus, and Armenia Minor : E. 
by the Euphrates, which divided it from Armenia Major: 
S. by the Taurus range, which separated it from Cilicia, and 
by Syria ; and W. by Lycaonia. 

2. The country was long under the dominion of the Per- 
sian empire ; but the satraps soon raised themselves to the 
position of tributary kings. Their power having been tem- 
porarily suspended during the wars of the successors of 
Alexander, the Cappadocian kings recovered their inde- 
pendence under Ariarathes II. In 17 a., d., Archelaus, the 
last king, died at Rome, and Tiberius made Cappadocia a 
Roman province, to which subsequently several other dis- 
tricts were added. 

3. Cappadocia was a rough and generally sterile moun- 
tain region, bordered by the chains of the Paryadres on 

1. What ia to be said of the extent or boundaries of Cappadocia ? 2. What 
political changes did it experience ? 3. What was the nature of the country, what 



ASIA MINOR. 247 

the N., the Scydisses on the E. and the Taurus on the S. 
The mountains abounded in various mineral productions, 
and the fine pastures of the country supported abundance 
of good horses and mules. 

4. The chief rivers in the country, were the Halys and 
the Melas. The Euphrates formed the E. boundary. Other 
considerable rivers were the Sarus and the Cappadox. 

5. Soon after Cappadocia had been made a Roman prov- 
ince, the districts of Cataonia and Melitene, which had be- 
fore belonged to CiUcia, were added to it, and the province 
then comprised the ten praefectures of Melitene, Cataonia, 
Cilicia, Tyanitis, Garsauritis, Laviniasene, Sargarausene, 
Chamanene, and Morimene. There were other divisions 
under the later emperors. 

CITIES IN CAPPADOCIA. 

6. Mazaca, also called Eusebia, now Kesarieh or 
Kaisafieh^ one of the oldest cities of Asia Minor, stood at 
the foot of Mount Argaeus, about the centre of Cappado- 
cia, in the praefectura called CiHcia. It was the capital of 
the country, and when Cappadocia was made a Roman prov- 
ince, A. D. 18, it received the name of Caesarea, being 
surname d adArgaeum,to distinguish it from other cities 
called Caesarea. St. Basil, commonly called Basil the 
Great, was born here 329 a. d., and, in 370 a. d., was elected 
bishop of his native city. 

7. The district of Melitene, reckoned also to Armenia 
Minor, was celebrated for its fertility, and especially for its 
fruit trees, oil, and wine. It possessed no great town until 
the first century of our era, when a city, also called Meli- 
tene, now Malatiyah^ was built on a tributary of the Eu- 
phrates, and near that river itself, probably on the site of a 
very ancient fort. This became a place of considerable 
importance ; the centre of several roads ; the station, under 
Titus, of the 12th legion ; and in the later division of the 
provinces, the capital of Armenia Secunda. 

8. Other cities in Cappadocia were, Faustinopolis, 
Padyandus, Castabala, Cocusos, Dastarcon, and 
Co man a, in Cataonia, of which the last named, a large 

its mountains, what its chief products, and what was the character of its inhahi- 
tantel 4. What rivers in Cappadocia? 5. Intohowmany praefectures, with what 
names, did the Romans divide Cappadocia? 6. Where and what was Mazaca, 
afterwards how called, whose birthplace was it ? 7. For what was the district 
Melitene noted, and what was its principal city ? 8. What other cities in Cap- 
padocia ? 



248 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

and populous city, was the capital, and noted for the wor- 
ship of Bellona. Tyana, with a great temple of Jupiter, 
and a singular effervescing spring in its neighborhood, ia 
Tyanitis: Cybistra, Sasima, Chusa, N'azianzus, all in 
Cappadocia Proper. Castabala was near Tyana, and cele- 
brated for its temple of Artemis Perasia. Tyana was at the 
foot of Mt. Taurus, in a position of great natural strength, 
which was improved by fortifications. It was the birth- 
place of Apollonius, the supposed worker of miracles. 

l.Isauria, on the N". side of the Taurus, between Pisidia 
and Cilicia, is by some geographers accounted a part of 
Pisidia, while Strabo and others regard it as a part of Ly- 
caonia. But Cramer justly observes, that the Isauri are 
sufficiently celebrated in history to deserve a separate men- 
tion. We accordingly treat Isauria as a distinct part of 
Asia Minor, lying between Pisidia, Cilicia, Lycaonia, and 
Phrygia. 

2. The Isaurians occupied a mountainous country. Living 
in a wild and rugged tract, the character of this people par- 
took of the nature of the air and soil in which they were bred. 
They descended into the plain country, and ravaged and 
plundered wherever they could overcome the resistance of 
the inhabitants of the valleys whether in Cilicia, Phrygia, 
or Pisidia. These marauding habits rendered them so 
formidable to their neighbors, that the Roman Senate was 
obliged at length to send a considerable force against them, 
under the command of P. Servilius, b. c. ^9. After several 
campaigns, and a laborious and harassing warfare, this gen- 
eral succeeded in conquering most of their fortresses, and 
reducing them to submission. These successes were thought 
sufficiently important to obtain for him the honors of the 
triumph, and the surname of Isauricus. 

3. The principal town bore the national name of Is aura. 
Strabo reports that it was ceded by the Romans to Amyn- 
tas, who caused the old town to be destroyed, and com- 
menced the foundation of a new city, which he surrounded 
with walls, but did not live to complete the work. Hence 
the distinction which the geographer elsewhere makes of 
Isaura Palaea and Euerces, or the well fortified, well de- 
fended. 

1. What and -where was Isauria? 2. What was the character of its inbabi- 



ASIA MINOR. 249 

4. Other towns of Isauria were : Lalassis, Clibanus, 
Carallia, andBusmasdis. It remains for us to describe 
two islands, not yet noticed, which lie off the coast of Asia 
Minor, viz. : Rhodus and Cyprus. 

17 .—JRhodus. 

1. Rhodus, now Hhodes, the easternmost island of the 
Aegaean, or more specifically, of the Carpathian Sea, lies 
off the S. coast of Caria, due S. of the promontory of Cy- 
nossema, (C. Aloupo^) at the distance of about 12 geo- 
graphical miles. Its length from N. E. to S. W. is about 
45 miles : its greatest breadth about 20 to 25 miles. 

2. There are various traditions relative to the first 
settlement of this island, which appear to signify that it 
was first peopled by some of the civilized races of W. Asia, 
probably the Phoenicians. Its Hellenic colonization is as- 
cribed to Tlepolemus, the son of Hercules, before the Tro- 
jan war, and after that war to Althaemenes. 

3. The principal immigrants and settlers were the Do- 
rians. Homer mentions the three Dorian settlements in 
Rhodes, namely, Lin dus, lalysus, and Camisus; and 
these cities, with Cos, Cnidus, and Halicarnassus, formed 
the Dorian Hexapolis, which was established, at a very 
early period, as we have already seen, in the S. W. corner 
of Asia Minor. 

4. Rhodes soon became a great maritime State, or 
rather confederacy, the island being parcelled out between 
the three cities above mentioned. The Rhodians made 
distant voyages, and founded numerous colonies, of which 
the chief were: Rhoda, in Iberia; Gela, in Sicily ; 
Parthenope, Salacia, Siris, and Sybaris, in Italy; 
settlements in the Balearic islands, and in their own neigh- 
horhood ; Soli, inCilicia; and Gagae and Corydalla,in 
Lycia. 

5. We cannot specify the internal political changes 
which the island underwent, or the various foreign rela- 
tions by which it was more or less affected, until, in al- 
liance with Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, their city Rhodus, 

tants ? 3. What was its principal town, and what does Strabo eay of it ? 4. "What 
other towns in Isauria ? 

1. Where was and is Rhodus, and what are its dimensions? 2. Who were its 

first inhabitants ? 3, Who were the principal immigrants and settlers ? 4. What 

kind of State did Rhodes soon become, and what colonies did the Ehodians 

form ? 5. What is said of the internal changes which it experienced, and its ex- 

11* 



250 AIJCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

Rhodes^ successfully endured a most famous siege by the 
forces of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at length, in admira- 
tion of the valor of the. besieged, presented them with the 
engines he had used against the city, from the sale of 
which they defrayed the cost of the celebrated Colossus 
to be more fully described under the city of Rhodus. 

6. After a long season of unbroken prosperity and in- 
creasing power, the Rhodians came at length into con- 
nection with the Romans, and rendered them important 
services in the war with Antiochus, for which, in the subse- 
quent partition of the Syrian possessions in Asia Minor, 
they were rewarded by the supremacy of S. Caria. A tem- 
porary interruption of their alliance with Rome was caused 
by their espousing the cause of Perseus, for which they 
were severely punished, b. c. 163 ; but they recovered the 
favor of Rome by the important naval aid which they ren- 
dered in the Mithridatic war. In the civil wars, they took 
part with Caesar, and suffered in consequence from Cas- 
sius, B. c. 42, but were afterwards compensated for their 
losses by the favor of Antonius. They were at length de- 
prived of their independence by Claudius ; and their pros- 
perity received its final blow from an earthquake, which 
laid the city of Rhodes in ruins, in the reign of Antoninus 
Pius, A. D. 155. The celebrated mediaeval history of the 
island, as the seat of the knights of St. John, does not be- 
long here. 

V. The island is of great beauty and fertility, with a de- 
licious climate : it produced wine, and its raisins were 
much esteemed: it was famous for its manufacture of 
saffron oil, and the sea which washed its shores supplied 
every kind offish. It was further celebrated as the home 
of distinguished schools of Greek art and of Greek oratory, 
and no country could boast of having given to the public 
games of Greece so many successful contenders for the 
prize. 

crrriES ik ehodes. 

8. The capital city of 'the island was Rhodus, less 
ancient than the Dorian cities to be mentioned infra, built 
in the form of an amphitheatre, and situated at the N. E. 
extremity of the island. It was a beautiful city, and had a 
very extensive commerce. The greatest work of art which 

ternal relations ? 6. With what power did the Ehodians eventually come into con- 
nection, with what results ? 7. What is the nature of the island and its climate, 
and for what was it distinguished ? 8. What was the capital of Ehodus, and for 



ASIA MINOE. 251 

it possessed was the statue of the Sun, by Chares of Lin- 
dus, the favorite pupil of Lysippus. This statue was of 
bronze, and was celebrated, under the name of " The Co- 
lossus of Rhodes," as one of the seven wonders of the 
world. Its height was upwards of 105 English feet; it 
was 12 years in erecting, and cost 300 talents, about 
$330,000. It stood at the entrance of the harbor of the 
city, but there is no authority for the statement, that its 
legs extended over the mouth of the harbor, and that ships 
passed beneath. It was overthrown and broken to pieces 
by an earthquake 56 years after its erection, b. c. 224. 
The fragments remained on the ground 896 years, till they 
were sold by the general of the Caliph Othman IV. to a 
Jew of Edessa, who carried them away on 900 camels, 
A. D. 672. 

9. There were three cities on the island much more 
ancient than Rhodus, and all founded by the Dorians : these 
were Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus. 

10. Lindus, the ruins of which are still called Lindo^ 
was one of the most ancient Dorian colonies on the Asiatic 
coast, and is mentioned by Homer with its kindred cities. 
It was on the E. side of the island, and stood upon a moun- 
tain in a district abounding in vines and figs : it had two 
celebrated temples, one of Athena, surnamed Lindia, and 
one of Hercules. 

11. Lindus was the birthplace of Cleobulus, one of the 
seven wise men. 

12. lalysus, on the IST. W. coast of the island, about 
60 stadia (7i miles) S. W. of Khodus. It is said to have 
derived its name from the mythical lalysus, son of Cerca- 
phus, and grandson of Helios. 

13. Camirus, on the W. coast of the island, and its 
principal town before the foundation of Rhodus, was said 
to have been founded by Camirus, son of Cercaphus and 
Cydippe. It was the birthplace of the poet Pisander. 

18.— C|fi>rf«s. 

1. Cyprus, stiU bearing the same name, but called 

what is it celebrated ? 9. What more ancient cities -were on the island ? 10. 
Where was Lindus, how situated, and noted for what products, and what works 
of art ? 11, Lindus was the birthplace of whom ? 12. Where was lalysus, said 
to have derived its name from whom ? 13. Where and what was Camirus, said to 
have been founded by whom ? It was the birthplace of whom ? 

1. Where is Cyprus, what other names had it, what is its form, and what are 



252 AITCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Kebris by the Turks, is a large island, S. of Cilicia and "W. 
of Syria. It is called by yarious names in the poets, Cer- 
astia or Cerastis, Macaria, Sphecia, Acamantis, 
Amathusia, and also Paphos. The island is of a trian- 
gular form : its length from E. to W. is about 140 miles ; 
its greatest breadth, which is in the W. part, is about 50 
miles from IN', to S., but it gi-adually narrows towards the 
east. 

2. A range of mountains, called Olympus by the 
ancients, runs through the whole length of the island from 
E. to W., and rises in one part more than '7000 feet in height. 
The plains are chiefly in the S. of the island, and were cele- 
brated in ancient as well as in modern times for their fer- 
tility. 

3. The largest plain, called the Salaminian plain, is in 
the E. part of the island, near Salamis. The rivers are little 
more than mountain torrents, mostly dry in summer. 

4. Cyprus was colonized by the Phoenicians at a very 
early j^eriod ; and Greek colonies were subsequently planted 
in the island, according to tradition soon after the Trojan 
war. 

5. The island was subdued by Amasis, king of Egypt, 
about 540 e. c. Upon the downfall of the Egyptian mon- 
archy, it became subject to the Persians ; but Evagoras of 
Salamis, after a severe struggle with the Persians, establish- 
ed its independence about 385, and handed down the sov- 
ereignty to his son IS'icocles. It eventually fell to the share 
of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and was governed by them, 
sometimes united to Egypt, and sometimes by separate 
princes of the royal family. ■ 

6. In 58 B. c. the Romans made Cyprus one of their prov- 
inces, and sent M. Cato to take possession of it. 

Y. Cyprus was one of the chief seats of the worship of 
Aphrodite, who is hence called Cypris or Cypria, and, of 
course, the inhabitants were excessively sensual and licen- 
tious, Nevertheless, literature and the arts flourished here 
to a considerable extent, even at an early period. 

8. During the proconsulship of Sergius Paulus, in a. d. 
45, Paul and Barnabas first preached the gospel in the 
island, of which the latter was a native, Acts XIII., 4-13. 

its dimensions? 2. What is the nature of its surface and of its soil? 3. Whatplain 
in the E. 1 AVhat is said of the rivers ? 4. By whom was Cyprus colonized ? 5. 
B5' whom and when was Cyprus subdued, and what changes of government did it 
subsequently experience ? 6. When did it become a Roman province ? 7. Cyprus 
was sacred to what goddesBj and what resulted from this relation ? 8. How is 



ASIA MmoE. 253 

9. The promontories on the coast of Cyprus were, a, in 
theW. ZephyriumPr.; J, above the former, toward the 
N. A cam as Pr., the north western most point of the 
island ; c, on thelST. coast, CallinusaPr. andCrommyon 
Pr. ; c?, intheE. DinaretumPr., Elasa Pr., andPeda- 
lium Pr.; e, in theS. Throni Pr., Dades Pr., Citinm 
Pr., Curias Pr., Pharium Pr., and Drepanum Pr. 

CITIES IN CTPKUS. 

A, On the jy. coast were : 

10. Arsinoe, ]Sr. E. of Acamas Pr., on the site of the 
older city of Marium, which Ptolemy I. had destroyed. 

11. Soli, the ruins of which, called Aligora, are in the 
valley of Solea^ was a considerable seaport-town in the W. 
part of the N". coast, on a little river. According to some, 
it was a colony of the Athenians ; while others ascribed its 
erection to a native prince acting under the advice of Solon, 
and others to Solon himself. The last account is doubtless 
an error. It had temples of Isis and Aphrodite, and there 
were mines in its vicinity. 

-S. On the E, coast : 

12. Salamis,in the middle of the E. coast, a little N". 
of the river Pediacus, possessed an excellent harbor, and 
was by far the most important city in the island. It is 
said to have been founded by Teucer, the son of Telamon, 
who gave it the name of his native island, from which he 
had been banished by his father. 

13. In the time of Trajan a great part of the town was 
destroyed in an insurrection of the Jews ; and under Con- 
stantino it suffered still more from an earthquake, which 
buried a large portion of its inhabitants beneath its ruins. 

14. It was rebuilt by Constantino, who gave it the name 
of Constantia, and made it the capital of the island. There 
are still a few ruins of this town. 

15. Leucolla Was near the Pedalium Prom., now Cape 
Grego. 

C, On the S. coasts 

16. Idalium, near the promontory of the same name, 
which, as well as in later times the town,was pre-emuiently 
sacred to Venus, who hence bore the surname Idalia. 

Cyprus noted in eacred history ? 9. What promontories on the coast of Cj'prus ? 
10. Where was Arsinoe 1 11. What and where was Soli, a colony of whom, had 
temples of whom, and what in its vicinity? 12. Where was Salamis, and what, 
founded by whom ? 13. WTiat calamities befell it in the time of Trajan and of 
Constantine ? 14, By whom was it rebuilt, receiving what name ? 15. Where 



254 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

17. Citium, one of the nine original chief towns of 
the island, with a harbor and salt works, was 200 stadia 
(25 miles) from Salamis, near the mouth of the Tetius. 
Josephus, in his Antiquities of the Jews, derives the name 
from that of Chittim, which occurs so frequently in the Old 
Testament. 

18. In this city, the celebrated Athenian, Cimon, died, 
and here Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school, was born. 

19. Amathtis, gen. Amathuntis, an ancient town N". E. 
of Curias Pr., (ruins near the present Limasol^ was par- 
ticularly sacred to Aphrodite, who had here a celebrated 
temple, and was hence called Amathusia. There were 
copper-mines in the neighborhood, whence Ovid speaks of 
it as ''^fecundam, Amathiinta metallV^ 

D. On the W. coast: 

20. Curium was near the Curias Pr., N. W. of it, "W. 
of the mouth of the Lycus. 

21. Paphos was the name of two towns on the W. 
coast, near each other, and called respectively "Old 
Paphos" (na/\.at7ra<jf)os) and " N'ew Paphos, " (Ilat^os via.) 

22. Old Paphos was situated near the promontory 
Zephyrium, on the river Bocarus, 10 stadia (1:|^ mile) from 
the coast, where it had a good harbor ; while New Paphos 
lay more inland, in the midst of a fertile plain, 60 stadia 
(7^ miles) from the former. 

23. Old Paphos or Palaepaphos was the chief seat of the 
worship of Aphrodite, who is said to have landed at this 
place after her birth among the waves, and who is hence 
frequently called the Paphian goddess, (Paphia.) Here she 
had a celebrated temple, the high-priest of which exercised 
a kind of religious superintendence over the whole island. 
Every year there was a grand procession from N'ew Paphos 
to the temple of the goddess in the old city. 

24. There were two legends respecting the foundation 
of Paphos, one describing the Syrian king Cinyras as its 
founder, and the other the Arcadian Agapenor on his re- 
turn from Troy. These statements are reconciled by the 
supposition that Cinyras was the founder of Old Paphos 

was LeucoUa 1 16. Where -was Idalium, sacred to whom ? 17. "Where was Ci- 
tium, originally what, possessing what, name whence derived? 18. What cele- 
brated Athenian died, and what distinguished philosopher was born here ? 19. 
Where was Amathus, sacred to whom, who was hence how called, what in tho 
neighborhood? 20. Where was Curium? 21. Where was Paphos, or rather 
where were the two towns of Old and New Paphos ? 22. How was Old Paphos, 
and how New Paphos situated ? 23. Old Paphos was the chiei seat of whose 
worship, and what was connected with this ? 24. What legends were there respect 



ASIA MINOR. 255 

and Agapenor of New Paphos. It may be regarded as 
certain that Old Paphos was of Phoenician origin, and that 
the worship of Aphrodite was introduced here from the 
East ; but an Arcadian colony cannot be admitted. 

25. When Paphos is mentioned by later writers without 
any epithet, they usually mean the new city ; but ■^vhen 
the name occurs in the poets, we are generally to under- 
stand the old city, as the poets rarely speak of the place 
otherwise than in connection with the worship of Aphro- 
dite. 

26. Palaepaphos was destroyed by an earthquake in the 
reign of Augustus, but was rebuilt by order of the em- 
peror, and called Augusta. Under the Romans New Paphos 
was the capital of one of the four districts into which the 
island was divided. 

27. Old Paphos corresponds to the modern Kukla or 
Konuklia^ and New Paphos to the modern JBaffa. 



"We have now completed what may be called Classical 
Geography in its narrowest sense — that portion of ancient 
geography which is most important to the reader of the 
Greek and Latin Classics. We shall now proceed to take a 
more cursory survey, and to present a much more concise 
view, of the remainder of the Ancient World. And as we 
began with Europe, we shall now return to the geography 
of that Continent. 

ing the foundation of Paphos, and "what must be regarded as certain in this particu- 
lar ? 25. What distinction must be noted, as respects the use of the name Paphos 
by ancient writers ? 26. What calamity befell Palaepaphos in the reign of Au- 
gustus, and -what did he do in consequence ? 27. The sites of these ancient cities 
are occupied by "wliat modern towns ? 



256 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



CHAPTEE IV. 
E U K O P A. 

(continued.) 

1,—Thracia, 

1. Thracia was bounded by Mt. Haemiis on the K., the 
river Nestus, now JTara-Su, on the W., the Aegean and 
Propontis on the S., and the Euxine on the E. It now forms 
a portion of Houmelia. 

2. Besides the lofty chain of H a e m u s , now the Balkan^ 
an important lateral ridge, connected with it, named Hho- 
dope, now Despoto Dagh^ traverses the W. part of this 
province, and sends out numerous spurs towards the E. 
and S. E. These mountains enclose the water-basin of the 
Hebrus, now Maritza^ the only large river in Thracia, 
which rises in the N. W., and flowing first towards the S. 
E., then, after its junction with the Artiscus, now Tondja^ 
to the S., discharges itself into the Aegaean. 

S. The most powerful tribes in Thrace were the Odry- 
sae in the centre, and the Bessi in the N". W. 

4. The towns stood mostly on the sea-coast : many were col- 
onies from the Greek towns in Asia Minor. Among the more 
important, ApoUonia, now Sizeboli^ was on the Euxine. 

5. Byzantium, afterwards Constantinopolis, now 
Const aoitinople^ and by the Turks called Stamhoul^ was on 
the Thracian Bosporus, now the Channel of Constantino- 
ple : it derived its second name from the emperor Constan- 
tine, who enlarged and beautified it, whence it became the 
capital of the Eastern Roman empire. 

6. Perinthus, orHeraclea, on the Propontis, was vis- 
ited by the 10,000 under Xenophon. It is now called Erekli, 

1. Aenos, now JEl-Musmeih, was onStentoris Sinus, a 
bay formed at the mouth of the Hebrus. 

8. Abdera, eastward of the ISTestus, was the birth- 
place of Hecataeus. 

1. How Tvas Thracia bounded, now forming a portion of what ? 2. What 
mountains in Thrace, enclosing the water-basin of what river ? Where does thia 
river rise, and what is its source? 3. Name the principal tribes that inhabited 
Thrace. 4. The towns were mostly where, and many were what ? Where was 
Appolonia? 5. Where was Byzantium, and by whom was its name changed ? 6. 
Where was Pertinthus, how noted in history ? 7. Where was Aenos ? 8. Where 



EUKOPA. 25T 

9. In the interior there were two towns which rose 
into importance under the Romans: Philippopolis, 
now Filippopoli, and Adrianopolis, now Adrianople^ 
both on the Hebrus : they are still important towns. 

10. A very interesting locality was the Chersonesus, 
the long peninsula lying between the Hellespont and the 
Aegaean : it was the abode of Miltiades, and contained the 
following noteworthy spots: the brook Aegospotamos, 
with a town of the same name, where the Spartans defeated 
the Athenians, b. c. 405 ; and Sestos, on the narrowest 
point of the strait opposite Abydos. 

1 1 . The only islands not mentioned elsewhere, that lay off 
the coast of Thrace, and deserve to be named, are Sam o - 
thracia, now SamothraJci^ occupied by Samians, whence 
its name ; and Th a s o s, with gold mines and marble quarries. 

2. — Jftoesla. 

1. Moesia, now Bulgaria^ was bounded on the S. by 
Mt. Haemus and Mt. Scordus, on the N. by the Ister, now 
the Danube^ on the W. by its tributary, the Drinus, now 
Drin or Drinna^ and on the E. by the Euxine. 

2. The Greeks knew little of Moesia. Herodotus 
enumerates some of the rivers which flow into the Ister,. 
and names the Getae as its inhabitants ; and Thucydides 
makes mention of the Triballi, a powerful tribe in the west- 
ern district. 

3. The Romans were well acquainted with it, from its 
importance as a frontier country against the northern 
tribes. It was formed into a province by Augustus, and 
afterwards divided by Trajan into two, Superior and In* 
ferior, the Ciambrus or Cebrus, now Zihru or Zibritza, 
forming the boundary. 

4. In the 3d century a. d., the emperor Aurelian trans- 
planted the Daci from the left to the right bank of the 
Ister, and thenceforward the western portion of Moesia 
was named Dacia Aureliani, subdivided into Ripensis, (on 
the banks of the river,) and Mediterranea (inland.) 

5. The southern and western districts are mountainous ; 

was Abdera, the birthplace of whom ? 9. What towns in the interior, and where, 
important under whom ? 10. What and where was the Thracian Chersonesus. the 
abode of whom, containing what important spots? 11. What islands lay oft the 
coast of Thrace ? 

1. How was Moesia bounded? 2. What knowlede;e had the Greeks of it, He- 
rodotus and Thucydides mention what ? 3. How caiuo the Eomans to be better 
acquainted with it, and into what Was it formed under their sway ? 4. What 
arrangements were made as respecta the country and its inhabitants in the 3d 



258 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

the Ister flows on a broad plain which widens as it ap- 
proaches the Euxine. The chief rivers were ; the D r inn u s , 
now -Z>rm?2a, and the Margus, novf Jforava: the tribu- 
taries in this province enumerated by Herodotus, were, the 
Scius,now Jsker^ihe Artanes,now Widyihe Athrys, 
now lantro, and the ISToes, now Kara Lorn. 

6. The tribes that inhabited Moesia were, the Moesi 
or My si, after whom the country was called, kindred to 
the Mysi of Mysia; the Triballi already mentioned, a 
branch of the Scythians, who retained a district about 
the lower course of the Ister; and the Peucini, who oc- 
cupied the Delta of the Ister, named Insula Pence. 

7. There were numerous towns along the course of the 
Danube, but they are devoid of historical interest ; along 
the coast of the Euxine were the Milesian colonies of Ode s- 
sus, To mis, whither Ovid was banished, 1st r us, and 
Callatis, founded by the Pontic Heracleans. 

m 

1. Dacia was bounded on the S. by the Ister, on the 
E. by the Euxine and the Tyras or Danastris, now 
J)mester, on the "N. by Mons Carpates, the Garpor- 
thians, and on the W. by the Pathissus or Tibiscus, 
now Theiss : it thus embraces a large part of Simgary^ 
Wallachia^ Moldavia^ and Bessarabia. 

2. Mons Carpates traverses this province through 
its whole depth, and feeds the following important trib- 
utaries of Ister: Maris or Marisus, now 3farosJc^ 
which joins the Theiss; Tiarantus, now Alouta ; Or- 
dessus, now Arjisch ; N'aparis, now Jalomnitza ; 
Ararus, now Sereth ; and Pyretus or Porata, now 
Pruth. These rivers have not, however, been identified 
with any certainty. 

3. The Daci were independent at the commencement 
of the Christian era, and stood high in respect to valor 
and martial skill. Trajan subdued them a. d. 100-105, 
upon which a large mass migrated to the eastward, and re- 
linquished their quarters to colonists introduced by the 
Romans. 

century, by -w^hom ? 5. W~hat is the face of the country, and what were the chief 
rivers ? 6. By what tribes was Moesia inhabited ? 7. What towns in Moesia, 
and what is said of them ? 

1. How was Dacia bounded, thus embracing what? 3. What mountain chain 
in this province, feeding what rivers ? 3. In earlier times, what was the position of 



EUKOPA. 259 

4. In the 3d century it was overrun by the Goths, and 
it was finally rehnquished by Aurelian, who, as has been 
already stated, transported the population to the other side 
of the Danube. 

5. Little is known of the towns ; the capitals seem to 
have been, Tibiscum, now Temesvar^ and Zarmizege- 
thusa to the eastward. 

6. The lazyges, surnamed Metanastae, (from the 
circumstance of their having been transplanted hither in 
the first century of the Christian era, from the coast of the 
Euxine and the Palus Maeotis,) a powerful Sarmatian 
people, occupied the plain between the Theiss and the 
parallel course of the Danube. 

4. — lllyrictim or lllyria, 

1. Illyricum was bounded on the S. by Epirus, on 
the E. by Macedonia and Moesia, (the Drinnus separating 
it from the latter,) on the N. by Pannonia, and on the W. 
by the Adriatic. 

2. Extensive and lofty mountain chains pervade the 
whole of it, and form the link between the mountain sys- 
tems of Greece and Thrace on the S., and the Alps on the 
]!^. These mountains prevented communication on the 
land side, while the numerous islands which lined the coast 
rendered access from that quarter difficult and dangerous. 
Hence Illyricum was little visited, and remained, until a 
very late period, in the occupation of uncivihzed and tur- 
bulent tribes. 

3. The chief rivers were, a, the Aous orAeas, now 
Yiosa^ Yiussa^ or Vovussa^ on the southern border, the 
upper course of which belonged to Epirus ; 5, the Drilo, 
Drin, which joins the Adriatic at the point where the 
coast bends N. W. towards the sea, &c. ; the IN'aro, now 
Narentay which rises in Albius Mons, and falls into the 
Adriatic. 

4. The mountains received specific names, but we need 
mention only Alb anus or Albius Mons, in the N., and 
the BebiiMontes, on the border of Moesia. 

the Daci, who subdued them, and when, leading to what consequences ? 4. What 
befell the country in the 3d century ? 5. What is said of the towns? 6. What tribe 
was transplanted hither, when, and occupied what part ? 

1. How was Illyricum bounded ? 2. What were the physical aspects of the 
country, and what effect resulted from them ? 3. What and where were the chief 
rivers ? 4. WTiat and where were the principal mountains ? 6. How was Illyria 



260 ANCIENT 0EOGEAPHT. 

5. Illyria was divided into two portions. Illyria Ro- 
man a or Barbara, and I. Graeca, separated by the 
course of the Drilo ; the former being the Roman province 
of Illyria, the latter the portion which was conquered by 
Philip II. of Macedonia, and annexed by the Romans to 
the province of that name. The latter was also called 
Epirus Kova. 

6. The most important tribes were, a, the Liburni,in 
the N". W., well skilled in maritime pursuits, and remarkable 
for their peculiarly light vessels; 5, the lapydes, who 
lived adjacent to them in the interior; c, the Dalmatae, 
who occupied the coast, named after them D aim at ia, from 
the Liburni to the IS'aro ; and c?, the Taulantii, between 
the Drilo and the Aous. 

7. The chief towns were, a^ Epidamnus, now Du- 
razzo^ a colony from Corcyra, raised to great importance 
by the Romans, who made it the point of communication be- 
tween Italy and the East, but considering the name as ill- 
omened, they changed it to Dyrrhachium; 5, Narona 
on the lN"aro ; c, Salona, or Salonae or Salon, the 
chief town of Dalmatia, near which, in the village of Dio- 
clea, Diocletian was born, and in the neighborhood of which 
he spent the rest of his days after his abdication ; and d, 
Scardona, Shardona^ or Skardin^ higher up on the coast, 
in the territory of the Liburni, whose chief town it was. 

1. Macedonia was bounded by the Nestus, ^(xra aSw, 
on the E., Mons Scordus on the IST., a range that descends 
southwards from the Bebii Montes, on the "W. separating 
it from lUyricum, and by the Cambunian mountains and 
Mount Olympus, separating it from Thessaly, and by the 
Aegaean, on the S. 

2. The mountain chains are numerous and irregular. 
Scordus is a continuation of Haemus ; its branches descend 
to the Aegaean and form an extensive peninsula, named 
Chalcidice, terminating in the lesser peninsulas, Acte, 
with Mt. At hos at its extremity, Sithonia, and Pallene. 
The heights eastward of the Strymon were named Orbe- 
lus and Pangaeus, now JPirnari^ the latter running 

divided ? 6. What were the most important trilbes, and where did they live ? Y. 
What and where were the chief towns, and severally noted for what ? 

1. How was Macedonia bounded? 2. What was the face of the country, or 



EUEOPA. 261 

parallel to the sea coast ; westward of the Strymon, M. C er- 
cine; and still farther westward, beyond the Axius, Mt. 
Bermius orBora, now Verria. 

3. The chief rivers were, the Strymon, now jStruma, 
falling into the Strymonicus Sinus, now Gkcif of Bufani : 
the Axius, now yardar^ which rises in the N". W., receives 
the E rigon, now Tjerna^ and discharges itself into the 
western bay, and theHaliacmon, now Indjeh Kara 8u^ 
which drains the southern district. 

4. The sea coast is very ii'regular : the bays formed by 
the advancing headlands of Chalcidice are, the Sinus 
Thermaicus, now Gulf of Salonihi, which receives the 
Axius; Sinus Toronaicus, now Giilf of Kassandra^ be- 
tween Pallene and Sithonia ; Sinus Singiticus, now Gulf 
of Monte Santo, between Sithonia and Acte ; and the Si- 
nus Strymonicus, Gulf of JRufani. The navigation 
about these headlands was dangerous, particularly about 
the precipitous promontory formed by Mt. Athos : it was 
here that the first fleet of Darius was shattered : Xerxes 
constructed a canal across the peninsula, at the back of Mt. 
Athos, by which his ships avoided the danger. 

5. Macedonia was divided into numerous districts, one 
of which, Paeonia, the highland region, extending along 
the northern frontier, was no less extensive than the ancient 
territory of Macedonia itself. 

6. The principal towns of Macedonia were, a, Thessa- 
xonica,or Therma, now SaloniM, at the head of the 
Sinus Thermaicus, the seat of the church to which St. Paul 
addressed his first Epistle; b, Pell a, to the N. W., now 
called AlaMsi, or A2Jostohis, the birthplace of Philip and 
Alexander; c, Edessa, the capital of the early Macedo- 
nian kings; d, Beroea, orBerrhoea, now'Pem<2,in the 
valley of the Haliacmon, honorably mentioned in the Acts 
of the Apostles ; e, Olynthus, now Agia Maria, ov Aio 
Mamas, at the head of the Sinus Toronaicus, remarkable 
for its resistance to Philip ;/, Potidaea, afterwards C a s - 
sandria, now FinaJca, a Corinthian colony, which with- 
stood a long siege by the Athenians, b. c. 432; g, Am- 

hipolis, now Neokhorio, at the outlet of the lake formed 
y the Strymon, not far from the sea, also the scene of im- 



I 



■what were the mountains of Macedonia? 3. "What are the chief rivers of Mace- 
donia? 4. VThat gulfs or bays on the coast? The navigation here of what char- 
acter, what is said of Mt. Athos ? 5. What is said of the divisions of Macedonia ? 
6. "WTiat and where were the principal towns of Macedonia, and for what were 



262 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

portant operations in the Peloponnesian war ; and A, Phi- 
lippi, now Mlihah, on the site of the ancient Crenides, 
to the eastward, celebrated for the battle between the 
Triumvirate and the Republicans, b. c. 42. 

T. Macedonia gave name to the vast empire founded by- 
Alexander the Great. The period of its greatness was 
from 334 B. c. to 323. At the latter date it extended over 
the whole Persian empire to the Indus, the Oxus, and lax- 
artes, including the W. provinces of Asia Minor, Armenia, 
&c., the Maritime districts of Syria, Phoenicia, and Palaes- 
tina, and Egypt in Africa. Macedonia itself was subdued 
by the Romans, B. c. 168, and formed into a province, 
B. c. 146. 

6. — Mispania^ 

1. Hispania, Spain^ was bounded on the E. and S.E. 
by the Mediterranean Sea, on the W. and S. W. by the At- 
lantic Ocean, and on the N. by the Mare Cantabricum, JBa^ 
of Biscay^ and the Pyrenaei Montes : it included the pres- 
ent kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. 

2. The eastern coast gradually slopes off towards the 
Fretum Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar, which con- 
nects the Mare Internum with the Mare Atlanticum : it 
there terminates in Calpe Promo ntorium, the lofty 
rock on which the fortress of Gibraltar now stands : the 
opposite height of Abyla, on the African coast, corresponds 
to it, and the two form a grand portal to the oc^an, which 
the ancients named Columnae Here ul is, ^^ the JPillars 
of Hercules?^ 

3. The mountain-ranges of Hispania are connected with 
the Pyrensean system. MonsVindius extends along the 
whole length of the peninsula parallel to the N". coast, and 
is now called the Sierra de las Astiirias : Mons Idubeda, 
now Sierra d? Oca, c0c., proceeds southwards at right angles, 
to it, bounding the water-basin of the Iberus on the W. : 
several lateral ridges emanate from it towards the S. W., of 
which Mons Marianus, now Sierra Morena, between 
the Anas and Baetis, and Mons Ilipula, Sierra Nevada, 
along the southern coast, are mentioned by classical writers. 

4. The chief rivers of Hispania were, a, the Iberus, now 

they respectively noted ? 7. Macedonia gave name to wliat, of what extent, it was 
subdued by whom, and when ? 

1. How was Hispania bounded? It included what? 2, The eastern coast 
slopes towards what straits, connecting what, terminating in what ? 3. What 



EUROPA. 263 

Ehro^ which rises in M. Vindius, and flows towards the S. 
E.jinto the Mare Internum ; ^, the Baetis, Guadalquimr 
which drains the country between the M. Marianus and M. 
Hipula, and flows into the Mare Atlanticum ; c, the Anas, 
Guadiana, which has a parallel course to the westward ; c?, 
the Tagus, which, still bearing the same name, rises in M. 
Idubeda, and traverses the central district from E. to W., 
discharging itself into the Mare Atlanticum ; e, the Dn- 
rius, DouTO^ with a course in the same direction, to the 
northward ; and the Minius, Minho^ yet more to the IsT. 

5. Hispania was little known to the earliest nations of 
antiquity : the Phoenicians frequented the coast for trading 
purposes, and founded the colonies of Carteia or Calpe, 
now Ban Roque^ Gades, Gadiz^ and Tartessus: the 
position of the latter is uncertain, but the district Tartes- 
sis lay on the coast about the mouth of the Baetis, and is 
confidently believed to be the Tarshish of Scripture whi- 
ther Solomon's fleet traded. 

6. The Greeks likewise, and particularly the Phocaeans, 
visited the E. and S. coasts; they named the former Ibe- 
ria, after the river Iberus, and the latter, outside the 
straits, Tartessis. 

7. The Greek colonies in Hispania were, «, Emporiae, 
or Emporium, near the border of GalUa; 5, Barcino, 
now Barcelona ^ c, Tarraco, now Tarragona ; d^ 7^2^- 
cynt h us, afterwards /^a^w?2^wm/ and Artemisium. 

8. The Carthaginians established themselves somewhat 
later, when their rivalry with Rome led them to desire per- 
manent acquisitions in Europe: they founded Carthago 
Nova, Gartagena, and subdued the whole coast S. of the 
Iberus. 

9. The Romans carried their arms into Hispania against 
the Carthaginians in the 2d Punic war, and having ex- 
pelled them, they ultimately became masters of the whole 
country. They divided it originally into two provinces, 
Citerior and Ulterior, the river Iberus forming the 
boundary between them. 

10. Augustus afterwards substituted for this a division 
into three provinces, viz. : H. Tarraconensis, Baetica, 

mountain ranges were in Hispania? 4. WTiat were the chief rivers of Hispania? 
5. What is the first ancient nation of which we know that they visited Hispania, 
founding what colonies ? 6. By what other ancient nation was Hispania visited, 
giving what names to which coasts ? 7. What Greek colonies were in Hispania ? 
8. When did the Carthaginians establish themselves in Hispania, founding what, 
and subduing what ? 9. "Wliat led the Romans into Hispania, with what result, 
and how did they divide the coimtry ? 10. How did Augustus subsequently alter 



264: ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

and Lusitania, of wliicli the last is co-extensive with 
Portugal and the adjacent provinces of Spain ; the second, 
named after the river Baetis, with Andalusia y while the 
first, named after the town of Tarraco, embraced the re- 
mainder of the peninsula. 

11. Under the emperors, Hispania became thoroughly 
Roman in language and institutions : it produced a great 
number of eminent writers, of whom we may mention the 
Senecas, Lucan, Martial, and Silius Itahcus, and also the 
two illustrious emperors, Trajan and Hadrian. Hence we 
have abundant details with respect to the towns, which 
have, however, no great present interest, fi'om the absence 
of historical associations. 

12. The native tribes were very numerous; the most 
important were, a, the Celtiberi, who lived on both 
sides of M. Idubeda; 5, the Cantabri, on the N. coast; 
c, the Gallaeci, in the N. TV. from the Durius to the Mare 
Cantabricum; c?, the Lusitani, on the TV. coast, from the 
Durius to the Tagus ; e, the Celtici, to the S. of the 
Tagus; /*, the Turdetani, about the lower course of the 
Baetis; and the Turduli, to the E. of them. 

13. The towns which deserve particular notice were, 
a, Gades, now Cadiz^ a sea-port of great importance, on a 
small island hard by the S. coast; 5, Hispalis, now Seville, 
on the Baetis, which was navigable thus far for ships of 
burden; c. Cor dub a, now Cordova, higher up the same 
river, the residence of the Roman praetor; d, Munda, 
near the coast, S. E. of Hispalis, some say in the neighbor- 
hood of Corduba, the scene of Scipio's victory over the 
Carthaginians, b. c. 216, and of Caesar's over the sons of 
Brutus, B.C. 45 ; €, Carthago IST ova, Cartagena, founded 
by Hasdrubal, b. c. 243, the best harbor on the E. coast, 
and so flourishing a town, that it became, in turn with Tar- 
raco, the residence of the Roman praetor; f, Saguntum, 
now Murviedro, (in ruins,) foimded by Greeks from Zacyn- 
thus, higher up the coast, well known for its connection 
with the 2d Punic war, and its heroic defence against 
Hannibal, b. c. 218 ; ^, Tarraco, now Tarragona, on the 
sea, IsT. of the Iberus, the headquarters of the Romans in 
the Punic war, and afterwards the capital of H. Tarraco- 
nensis ; ^, IN^umantia, the ruins of which are near Puente 

this arrangement ? 11. What change did Hispania undergo nnder the emperors, 
and what distinguished men did it produce? 12. What native tribes were in 
Hispaiiia ? 13. What and where were the towns which require particular notice, 



EUKOPA. 265 

deDon Guarray, TV. of M. Idubeda, strongly jDosted on a 
height at the junction of the Durius with one of its tributa- 
ries : it was taken from the Celtiberians, after a siege of 14 
months, by Scipio Africanus, b. c. 133. 

14. Off the coast of Hispania he two groups of islands, 
the Baleares or Gymnesiae, and the Pity iisae, each 
group consisting of two islands. The larger of the two 
Baleares was named Major, and the lesser Minor, whence 
their modern names, Majorca and Minorca. They were 
occupied by a mixed population of natives and Phoenician 
settlers. The natives were very skilful in the use of the 
sling : their piratical habits drew on them the vengeance 
of Rome, and they were subdued by Caecilius Metellus, 
B. c. 123._ The chief of the Pityusae was Ebusus, now 
Iviza^ which possessed a much frequented harbor on its S. 
coast: the smaller, Ophiussa, now Formentera^wSi^ un- 
inhabited. 

7. — Pallia, 

1. Gallia (exclusive of G. Cisalpma, with which, fully 
considered in connection with Italia, we have nothing to do 
here) was bounded, in the time of Augustus, by the Pyrenees 
and the Mediterranean on the S. ; by the river Varus and 
the Alps, which separated it from Italy, and by the Rhine, 
which separated it from Germany, on the E. ; by the 
Oceanus Britannicus and the Oceanus Germanicus on the 
N". ; and by the Mare Atlanticum on the W., thus including 
not only the whole of France and Belgium, but a part of 
Holland, a great part of Switzerland, and all the provinces 
of Germany W. of the Rhine. 

2. The rivers form the most prominent features in the 
country; the chief of these were, a the Rhodanus, 
Rhone, which rises in the Alps, passes through the Lacus 
Leniannus, i. of Geneva, in a westerly course, but after re- 
ceiving the Arar, Saone, turns towards the S., and flows 
into the Mediterranean; ^, theGarumna, Garonne, which 
rises in the Pyrenees, and flows towards the N". W. into the 
Mare Cantabricum; c, the Liger, Loire, which rises tOr 
wards the S. in M. Cevenna, and traverses the central 

and for what are they respectively remarkable ? 14. What groups of islands lie off 
the coast ol Hispama, which was the largest and whichthe lesser of the one group, 
and what is said of the inhabitants ? What is the chief of the other group, 
possessing what? ^ •^' 

TTTv • A°^^ y^\ Gallia bounded, including what parts of modern Europe ? 2. 
What striking feature did Gallia present, and what were and are its chief rivers, 



266 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

provinces, falling into the Mare Cantabricum ; c?, the 
Sequana, Seine, which rises not far from the Arar, and 
flows towards the N. W., receiving an important tributary 
on its right bank; 6, the Matrona, Marne^ and dis- 
charging itself into the Mare Britannicum or British Chan- 
nel ^ f^ the Mosa, Maas or Meuse, the headwaters of which 
emanate from the same region as those of the Sequana and 
Arar : after a northerly course it joins the sea at the same 
point as the Rhenus; and lastly, (7, the E-henus, Mhine, 
historically the most important of all in ancient as well as in 
modern times : it rises in the Alj^s, flows through Lacus 
Venetus or Brigantinus Lacus, now the Bodensee or Lake 
of Constance^ in a westerly course, and at Basilea, JBasle, 
turns northward, and after a long course in that direction, 
bends towards the W., as it approaches the German Ocean. 
Its tributaries on its left bank were the I^ava, N'ahe, and 
the Mo sella. Moselle^ which rises in M. Yogesus or Yos- 
gesus, Vosges. It discharged itself by three channels, the 
southern, where the Mosa joined it, named Helium Os- 
tium, (called Vahalis, Waal by others,) and the northern, 
(which appears to have been artificially formed by Drusus 
to connect it with the Yssel, and so with the Zuyder Zee,) 
named Flevum: the middle one retained the name of the 
river. 

3. "With the exception of the lofty chains which skirt the 
eastern and southern borders of Gallia, the only hills 
worthy of notice are, a, Mons Cevenna or Cebenna, 
Ceve7i7ies, a northerly continuation of the Pyrenees ; b, 
M. Jura , still so called, between the Rhodanus and the 
Arar; c, M. Yogesus, or Yosgesus, now the Yosges^ 
bounding the valley of the upper Rhine ; and d^ the high 
forest district named Ar duenna Silva the Ardennes, 
between the Mosa and the Mosella. 

4. The Greeks were not acquainted with any thing 
beyond the southern coast of Gallia. Here stood the im- 
portant colony of Massilia, Marseilles^ which was found- 
ed by the Phocaeans, and was doubtless a place of con- 
siderable trade in the early times of Grecian history. The 
people who occupied the coast are named, in their ac- 
counts, Ligyes, whom the Romans called Ligures; and 
by Hecataeus, Elisyci: the remainder of the country was 
described under the name Celtica. 

and what is the course of each? 3. What mountains in Gallia? 4. What did the 
Greeks know of Gallia, having here what colony, founded by whom ? How 



EUEOPA. 267 

5. The Romans made their first entry into Gallia or 
Gaul, about 128 b. c, as allies of the Massilians against the 
neighboring tribes. Shortly after, b. c. 122, the whole of 
the southern districts bordering upon the Mediterranean 
were reduced and constituted a province, and two colonies- 
were planted in it, Aquae Sextiae, Aix, 'N. of Massilia, 
and [N'arbo, Narhonne^ on the W. coast. The extent of 
this province was from Mons Cevenna in the "W. to the 
Alps in the E., and to the Lacus Lemannus in the [N". 

6. The remainder of Gaul was occupied by three power- 
ful races, viz. : the Aquitani in the S. W., between the 
Garumna and the sea; the Celtae, northwards to the 
Sequana ; and the Belf ae, in the N. E., between the Se- 
quana and the Rhenus. Julius Caesar subdued these in a 
series of successful expeditions, b. c. 58-50, and established 
a fourfold division, naming the old Roman province, IsTar- 
b on en sis, after its capital ; and the district of the Celtae, 
Lugdunensis, after its capital Lugdunum, retaining for 
the others the names of the races. 

7. The boundaries of these provinces w^ere not, how- 
ever, strictly co-extensive with the residence of the tribes : 
Aquitania was extended to the Liger in the IST. and to M, 
Cevenna in the E. Belgica was bounded on the S. by the 
Rhodanus, and on the "W". by the Arar, and by an arbi- 
trary line which ran parallel to the Sequana, reaching the 
sea at Dieppe. 

8. The Gauls were subdivided into a very great num- 
ber of independent tribes, the names of which are not un- 
frequently preserved in the modern names of towns, as 
Aureliani, Orleans^ Remi, Hheims^ Virodunenses, Verdun^ 
and many others ; and occasionally in the names of prov- 
inces, as Arverni, Auvergne^ Yellavi, Vellai^ Sandones, 
Saintogne^ Cenomanni, Maine. The position of these seve- 
ral tribes is best ascertained from a map, and we therefore 
proceed to enumerate the towns to which any historical 
interest attaches. 

9. The capital of Aquitania was Burdigala, now 
Sourdeaux, on the Garumna, which rose to eminence both 
as a commercial town and as a place of literature. 

10. The other towns of importance were, a, Avari- 

did they name the people occupying the coast ? 5. When and how were the Ro- 
mans brought into Grallia, and what was the result? 6. By whom was the re- 
mainder of G-allia occupied, subdued by whom, when, and how divided ? 7. What 
is said of the boundaries of these provinces ? 8. WTiat is said of the subdivisions 
of the Gauls ? 9. What and where was the capital of Aquitania, and for what 



268 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

cum, j^owr^res, near the Liger, — ^which withstood a long 
siege against Caesar; and 5, Augustoritum, Xmo^es, 
midway between the two above mentioned 

11. The capital of Gallia Narbonensis was ISTarbo, 
Narbonne^ on the sea-coast, a large and handsome town, 
and a place of great trade, particularly with Britain : 
the Romans called it N'arbo Martins, at a later time 
Narbona. 

12. The other important towns were, a, Tolosa, 
Toulouse^ on the upper course of the Garumna, which 
possessed a very wealthy temple, said to have been en- 
riched by the spoils of Delphi; ^, ITemausus, iV?sme5, 
W. of the Rhodanus on the S. ^ope of M. Cevenna ; c, 
Are late, Aries, at the head of the Delta of the Rhodanus, 
where that river was crossed by a bridge of boats ; d, 
AquaeSextiae, Aix, ne-ar which Marius conquered the 
Teutones, b. c. 102 ; e, Massilia, Marseilles, well situated 
on a peninsula, with an excellent arsenal and port : it was 
besieged by Caesar in the civil war, and suffered severely 
in its commercial importance, though it afterwards remain- 
ed a favorite residence of the Romans ; lastly, f, Vienna, 
Vienne, high up the Rhodanus, the rival of its neighbor, 
Lugdunum. 

1 3 . The capital of Lugaunensis was Lugdunum, Lyons, 
centrally situated at the confluence of the Rhodanus and 
Arar, the birthplace of Claudius, and much enlarged by 
him. 

14. The other places of note and interest were, (^, Ale- 
sia, on a tributary of the Sequana, and situated on a high 
hill, now Auxois, celebrated as the scene of the last 
struggle for Gallic freedom, b. c. 52, when it was taken and 
destroyed by Caesar ; 5,Lutetia Parisiorum, Pans, the 
chief town on the Sequana, built on a small island, and 
connected with the banks of the river by two wooden 
bridges ; and c, Genabum or Cenabum, Orleans, on the 
Liger, near which the Gallic tribes were accustomed to 
hold their annual congress. In later times it was called 
Civitas Aurelianorum or Aurelianensis Urbs, whence its 
modern name. 

15. The chief towns of Gallia Belgica lay on the banks 

noted? 10. What other important towns in Aqnitania? 11. What and where 
•was the capital of Gallia Narbonensis ? 12. What other towns in this province ? 
13. What and where was the capital of G. Lugdunensis ? The birthplace of 
whom ? 14. What other noteworthy places in Lugdunensis ? 15. What were the 



EUKOPA. 269 

of the Rhine, and were important as border fortresses 
against the German tribes. These were, a^ Augusta 
Rauraca, or Rauracorum, Aug8% near the bend of the 
river to the N., near the modern Basle; J, Argentora- 
tum, Strashurg^ the headquarters of the 8th legion 
and a Roman municipium ; c, Mogontiacum,now May- 
ence^ founded by Drusus, opposite the mouth of the 
Mai7ie; andc?, Colonia Agrippina, or Agrippinensis, 
Cologne^ originally the chief town of the TJbii, and called 
Oppidum^ or Civitas Ubiorum^ a place of small importance 
until 51 A. D., when a Roman colony was planted in the 
town by the emperor Claudius, at the instigation of his 
wife Agrippina, who was born here, and from whom 
it derived its new name. It soon became a large and 
flourishing city, and was the capital of Lower Germany. 

16. The chief towns of the interior were, «, Vesontio, 
Besanqo7i^ on the Dubis, Doubs^ a tributary of the Arar, 
the capital of the Sequani; 5, Augusta Trevirorum, 
Treves^ on the Mosella, the usual residence of the Roman 
generals, and hence made the capital of the "W. division 
of the province; c, Gesoriacum, ^ow?o^W6, the usual 
place of transit to Britain, (Caesar, however, crossed from 
Itius Portus, Sangatte;) and c7, Durocortorum, 
BJieims^ the capital of the Remi, on a branch of the Isara, 
a tributary of the Sequana. 

17. Off the northern coast lie the islands, Caesarea, 
Jersey ; S a r n i a , Guernsey / andRidtina, Alderney. 

S.Sritannia or Mritannicae Insulae, 

1. Britannia, the island of ^/i^?anc? and /Sco^^awc^, was 
also called Albion. Hibeknia or Ireland is usually spoken 
of as a separate island, but is sometimes included under the 
general name of the Insulae Brit annicae, which also 
comprehend the smaller islands around the coast of Great 
Britain. Under this latter view we shall here consider this 
part of Europe. 

2. The early notices of Britain are exceedingly few and 
meagre ; and when it is borne in mind that, in the age of 
Virgil and Horace, it was looked upon as the remotest 

chief towns of Gallia Belgica, and severally noted for what, on the Rhine? 16. 
What were the chief towns in the interior of Gallica Belgiqa ? 17. What islands 
lie off the northern coast ? 

1. WTiatisto be observed respecting the name of Britain? 2. What is to be 



270 ANCIENT aEOGEAPHT. 

part of the world, we shall not expect to hear much of it 
before that period. It is known that the Carthaginians 
visited it, and carried on a considerable traffic irttin from 
the Spanish port of Gadeira (an island now called I. de St. 
JOeon) to the Cassite rides: under this name the group 
of the Scilly Isles is commonly understood ; but as there 
are but few traces of ancient mines in those islands, we 
must include under that name the coasts of Gornioall, 

3. Caesar first attempted the conquest of Britain in two 
expeditions, 55 and 54 b. c. ; but the real conquest was com- 
menced by Claudius about a century afterwards, a. d. 43, 
and completed by Agricola in his expedition, a. d. 78-85. 

4. The northern boundary was fixed by Agricola at the 
Firths of Forth a7id Clyde^ but it was soon withdrawn by 
Hadrian, a. d. 121, to the Solway Firth and the Tyne^ be- 
tween which he erected a wall, to check the incursions of 
the Caledonians. 

5. Antoninus Pius for a time restored the kingdom to 
its former extent, and erected a wall from sea to sea, the 
remains of which exist under the name of Graham'' s Dyke ; 
but it was again withdrawn by Severus, who erected a wall 
parallel to that of Hadrian, thenceforth the regular boun- 
dary of the Roman dominion. The last mentioned emperor 
divided Britannia into two provinces, Supebioe and 
Ii!^EEi0E, divided by the river Thames. 

6. Constantino afterwards divided it into the following 
five : Beitan:nta Peima, S. of the Thames : Beitannia 
Secunda, Wales: Flavia Caesaeiensis, between the 
Thames and the Humber : Maxima Caesaeiensis, northward 
to Hadrian's "Wall ; and Yalentia, the northern district, 
between the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, occasionally 
under the Roman power. The remainder of Scotland was 
called Britannia Barbara. 

'1. The details of the geography of Ancient Britain are, 
comparatively speaking, devoid of interest. We know the 
names of towns, and rivers, and tribes ; but we are without 
historical records to invest them with any thing beyond a 
local uiterest. 

said of the early notices of Britain, and "whfit nation visited it for the purposes of 
traffic ? 3. When and by whom was the conquest of Britain attempted, by whom 
and when was the real conquest commenced, by whom and when was it com- 
pleted? 4. Where did Agricola fix the N. boundary, afterwards how changed by 
whom and when, erecting what, for what purpose ? 5. What changes were made 
in the boundaries first by Antoninus Pius, and then by Severus, the latter making 
what division of Britannia ? 6. What divisions, under what names, did Constan- 
tjne afterwards make in Britain I 7. What is to be said, generally, of the geo- 



EtTEOPA. 271 

8. The chief rivers and firths have the following names : 
a^ the Tamesis, Thames; &, Metaris Aestuarium, 
the Wash; c, Ahns^JTumber; and (?, Boderia Aestua- 
rium, Firth of Forth^ all on the eastern coast / e, the 
Sabrina, Severn^ flowing into the Sabriana Aestua- 
rium, ^Ws^o^ Channel ; f Seteia Aest., at ih-Qmouthof 
theDee; ^, Belisama Aest., at ihQ mouth of the Mersey ; 
h^ Moricambe Aest., MorecamheBay ; ^, ItunaAest., 
Solway Firth; and/, Clota Aest., Firth of Clyde ; all 
on the western coast. 

9. The chief promontories were, a, Cantium, North 
Foreland ; 5, Ocellum, SpurnrSead ; c, Damnonium 
or Ocrinum, Lizard ; c?, Octopitarum, St. David's 
Head ; and 6, Canganorum, Braich-y-FwU^ in Caernar- 
vonshire. 

10. When the Romans entered, the British tribes were 
disposed in the following manner: 1, In Britannia Prima : 
a, the Cantii, in Kent; b, the Regni, in Surrey and 
Sussex; c, the Atrebatii,in Surrey and Berkshire; d^ the 
Belgae, in Wiltshire^ Somersetshire^ and Hampshire; e, 
the Durotriges, in Dorsetshire ; and/, the Damnonii, 
in Devon and Cornwall. 2-. Li Britannia Secunda : «, the 
Or do vices, in North Wales and Shropshire; 5, the 
Demetae, in Cardiganshire and Pembrokeshire ; and c, 
the Siliire^s, in the remainder of South Wales and in 
Monmouthshire. 3. In Flavia Caesariensis : «, theTrino- 
bantes, in Essex and Middlesex ; b^ the Cenimagni, in 
Suffolk; c, the Iceni, in Norfolk; c?, the Coritani,in 
Lincolnshire; 6, the Catuvellauni,in Buckingham^ Bed- 
ford^ Northampton., and Cambridge-shires ; f the Dob tin i, 
in Oxford and Gloucester-shires; and g^ the Cornavii, 
in Chester^ Stafford^ and Warioick-s hires. 4. In Maxima 
Caesariensis: a, the important tribe of the Brigantes, 
with a subdivision, the Pari si, on the eastern coast of 
Yorkshire . 5. In Valentia : a, the O t o deni , on the eastern 
coast/ ^, theElgovae, in the S.W. ; andc, theDamnii, 
in the N. in Berth, Argyle, Stirling, and Dumbarton-shires. 

11. The Romans, after having established themselves in 
Britain, occupied for the most part the towns of the natives, 
which they enlarged, and probably in great measure rebuilt. 

12. There were as many as 33 towns with municipal 

graphy of ancient Britain ? 8. Name the chief rivers and firths. 9. WTiat were 
the chief promontories ? 10. At the time of the arrival of the Romans, how were 
the British tribes disposed ? 11. What did the Komans occupy in Britain, making 



272 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHT. 

privileges: two of these, Yerulamium, jSt. Alban% and 
Eboracum, York, ranked as municij^ia, and nine as 
coloniae, viz., Londinium, London j Camalodtinum, 
(7o^qAe5^er / R u t u p i a e , Hichboro'' /AquaeSolis, JBath ; 
Isca, CaerUon y Deva, Chester ^ Glevum, Gloucester ; 
L i n d u m , Lincoln ; and C a m b o r i c n m , Cambridge. 

13. Londinium belonged to the Trinobantes, and was 
a place of trade before the Roman era: it was fortified by 
Constantius Chlorus, about 296 a. d., and at a somewhat 
later date was named Augusta. 

14. Camalodunum was the capital of the Trino- 
bantes : it was the first colony occupied by the Romans, and 
was taken and sacked by Boadicea. 

15. Yerulamium was the capital of the Catuvel- 
launi, and the residence of Cassivellaunus. 

16. Eboracum was the headquarters of the army for 
the protection of the northern border, and hence frequently 
the residence of Roman emperors : Severus and Constan- 
tius Chlorus died there; and Constantine the Great was 
there when he was summoned to the throne. 

17. Deva and Isca were the other important garrisons, 
the former for defence against the Ii'ish tribes, the latter 
against the Silures of South Wales : Lindum and Cam- 
boricum were stations connecting Londinium and Ebora- 
cum ; and Rutupiae was the usual port of transit to Gaul. 

18. Aquae Solis was much frequented for its hot 
springs; and Gleva, like Isca, was important as a garri- 
son for defence against the Silures of S. Wales. 

19. The islands that he ofi* the coast of Great Britain 
were named, a, Yectis,Zs^6 of Wight ; 5, Mona, An- 
glesea: c, Monarina or Monapia, L. of Man: c?, Ebu- 
d a e , Hebrides ; and 6, O r c a d e s , Orkneys. 

20. Hibernia, Lreland, was not conquered by the 
Romans, and hence we have still fewer particulars about it. 
The coasts are described by Ptolemy, with the chief rivers, 
estuaries, and promontories ; but an enumeration of these 
would be little more than a barren list of names. The 

what alterations ? 12. Hotv many towns were there with municipal privileges, 
two of which, name them, ranked as what, and nine, name them, as what? 13. 
To what tribe did Londinium belong, was what before the Roman era, fortified 
by whom, afterwards how named? 14. What was the capital of the Trinobantes, 
what under the Romans, experienced what fate? 15. Whose capital and whose 
residence was Verulamium ? 16. What was Eboracum, frequently whose resi- 
dence, what emperors died here, and who was summoned from here to the throne? 
17. W^hat were Deva and Isca ? What Lindum, Camboricum and Rutupiae ? 18. 
For what was Aquae Solis frequented, and what gave Geva importance? 19. 
What were the names of the islands lying ofl' the coast of Great Britain? 20. 



EUEOPA. 273 

chief tribe seems to have been the luverni, in the S., 
whose name contains the same root as Hibernia, and the 
modern Enrin, The town EblTina, on the E. coast, has 
been identified with Dublin. A tribe of the Brigantes, a 
branch of the people in Maxima Caesariensis, lived in Wex- 
fordshire. 

21. Thule was discovered by Pytheas of Massilia in 
the fourth century b. c, and his description leaves little 
doubt that he reached Iceland. As none of the ancients 
subsequently penetrated those seas, Thule was described by 
later writers as much more to the S., somewhere in the 
position of the Shetland Islands. 



9 .— Germania. 

1. Germania,6rermoj?iy, was bounded by the Rhine on 
the W., the Vistula on the E., the Mare Germanicum, German 
Ocean^ and Mare Suevicum, Baltic /Sea, on the N., and the 
Danube on the S. ; it was calledGermaniaMagna, Bar- 
bara, or Transrhenana, to distinguish it from the Ro- 
man provinces of Germania Prima, and G. Secunda 
on the W. of the Rhine, which were so named in the divi- 
sion of Constantine : it corresponds with Germany N. of 
the Danube, Holland, and what little was known of the 
more northern countries of Europe. 

2. It is probable that the Phoenicians visited the coasts 
of Germany to procure the highly prized amber : at all 
events, Pytheas of Massilia, who discovered Thule, ad- 
vanced along the coast as far as the Elbe. 

3. We hear no more of Germany until the conquest of 
the Romans in Gaul brought them into contact with the 
tribes on the right bank of the Rhine. Caesar crossed that 
river twice, b. c. 55 and 54, the first time probably at An- 
dernach, the second time near Cologne, but he did not ad- 
vance far into the interior. 

4. Drusus, B. c. 12-9, conducted expeditions against the 
northern tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe ; and his 
successors established a temporary sway as far as the TFe- 



"What iB to be said of Ireland, its chief tribe and chief city? 21. By whom was 
Tluile discovered, and what is said of it? 

1. How was Germania bounded, how called to distinguish it from what, cor- 
responds with what? 2. By what ancient nation were the coasts of Germany 
probably first visited, to procure what? 3. In what connection do we again hear 
of Germany, who entering it, how often, and where ? 4. Who conducted expedi- 
12* 



274 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

ser; but it was overtlirown by the revolt under Arminius 
and the defeat of the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest. 

6. Germanicus, a. d. 14-17, attempted to repair the mis- 
fortune, and gained some victories, penetrating as far as the 
Weser; but he also failed in making any impression, and 
no further attacks were made in that quarter. 

6. The Romans, thenceforth directed their energies to 
the protection of their southern provinces : they inclosed, 
A.D. 121, a large district on the right bank of the Rhine, with 
a wall which stretched from near GohUntz to JRatishon on 
the Danube, which they named Agri Decumates, (the tithe 
lands^) because the occupants were obliged to pay a tax of 
a tenth part of their produce. They retained this until the 
2d Marcomannic war, when the frontier of the Roman 
empire was finally withdrawn to the Danube. Of all the 
nations with whom the Romans engaged in war, the Ger- 
mans are the 07ily people, whom, though they gained victo- 
ries over them, they never conquered and reduced to sub- 
jection. 

7. From this sketch of the proceedings of the Romans, 
we should not expect to have much information with re- 
spect to the geography of this country ; indeed we know 
nothing of it beyond the Weser, with the exception of the 
names of the tribes. 

8. The principal mountain ranges are those which in- 
close Bohemia, viz.: a, Montes Sudeti, JEh^zgehirge^ or 
SudetiG 3Its. ; and ^, Vandalici Montes, Hiesenge- 
hirge or Giant Mts.^ on the K. ; and c, GabretaSilva, Boh- 
merwald^ on the S. W. ; the German name Mrz, of the first, 
is evidently connected with Hercynia Silva, Hartziocdd^ 
which was the undefined title of all the wooded mountain- 
ranges of Germany. 

9. In addition to these, the following must be mentioned : 
«, M. Abnoba, Schioarzwald^ Black Forest^ in the S. W. ; 
hy Taunus, which retains its name, between the Maine 
and the Rhine; and c, Silva Teutoburgiensis, Teuto- 
burger Wald, a high woodland district between the JEJms 
and the Weser. 

10. The chief rivers of Germany are, 1, the Rhenus, 
Bhine, which receives on its right bank the Nicer, Neck- 

tions against the nortliern tribes, and -what did his successors accomplish? 5. 
What did Germanicus attempt, and what accomplish ? 6. To what were the 
energies of the Romans thenceforth directed, they inclosed what, naming it how ? 7, 
What is said of our knowledge of the geographjj^ of this country ? 8. What are the 
principal mountain ranges in Germania ? 9. In addition to the foregoing, what 



EUROPA. 275 

ar, the Moeniis, Maine^ and the Luppia, Lippe ; 2, 
the Ister or Danubius, Danube^ (the first being the older 
name by which it was known to the Greeks,) which rises in 
M. Abnoba, and flows towards the E., discharging itself 
into the Euxine ; 3, the Vistula, German Weichsd^ which 
flows northwards into the Mare Suevicum ; 4, the Albis, 
Elhe^ which flows into the Mare Germanicum, with a tribu- 
tary, the Salas, Saale ; 5, the Visurgis, Weser, more to 
the W., with a tributary, the Adrana, JEJder/ 6, the Via- 
drus, Oder; and 7, the Amisia, JEJms, between the Vi- 
surgis and Rhenus. 

11. The tribes of Germany were divided, according to 
Tacitus, into three great families, viz. : the Ingaev ones, 
on the coast of the Mare Germanicum; the Istaevones, 
from the banks of the Khine to the Saltus Teutoburgiensis ; 
and the Her mi ones, farther inland ; to these he adds the 
Suiones or Hilleviones, who occupied the Scandina- 
vian peninsula. This division applies only to the tribes W. 
of the Elbe. 

12. The subdivisions were very numerous-; the follow- 
ing are the more important, and we connect with each the 
corresponding territorial divisions of modern Germany: 
1, Those who lived W. of the Elbe, were, c?, the Frisii, 
between the Hhine and the ^ms, in North Holland; 5, 
the Chauci, about the lower course of the Weser ^ in Old- 
enburg and Hanover ; c, the Angrivarii, higher up the 

Weser ^ near Bremen / c?, the L a n g o b a r d i , on the left bank 
of the Elhe^ about Limehurg ; e, the Bructeri, about the 
upper course of the Ems^ in Westphalia ; /", the Us i pe- 
tes, on the Wiine^ from the Lippe to the Yssel ; g^ the 
Tencteri, along the Mhine^ to the S., as far as theXahQi; 
A, the Mattiaci, in Nassau ; «, the Chatti, in Hesse 

Cassel ; and the C h e r us c i, to the is". E., from the Weser to 
the Elbe. 2. Eastward of the Elbe., a, the Sax ones, who 
first appear in the 2d century, in Holstein; 5, the Cimbri, 
in Denmark; c, the Bugii, along the coast of the Baltic; d, 
the Burgundiones, S. of them, between the Oder and 
the Vistula; and e, the Semnones, to the W., between 
the Oder and the Elbe, a subdivision of the great race of 
the Suevi. 3. In the S., «, the Hermunduri, adjacent 



mountains are to bo mentioned ? 10. What are the chief rivers of Germany ? 11. 
Into what great families were the German tribes divided? 12. WTiat tribes lived 
W. of the Elbe ? What tribes dwell eastward of the Elbe ? What tribes were ja 
the S. ? 13. What is said of the more northern countries ? 



276 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

to the Roman Trail, in parts of JBavaria and Saxony ; 
b, the Marcomanni, in JBohemia ; and c, the Quadi, 
in Moravia. 

13. Little was known of the more northern countries ; 
mention is made of the Sinus Codanus, £jattegat, and 
the Sin. Lagnus, Great and ILittleJBelts ; as Avell as of a 
group of islands, Scandiae Insulae, probably the islands 
of Denr)iarkj and of ]N"erigos, the southern point of Nor- 
way. 



tO.—Rhaetia^ J\*oricuni^ and JPannonia, 

1. Rhaetia, Noricum, andPannonia first came into 
notice when they were conquered by the Romans, to whom 
they afterwards became of great importance as a frontier 
district against the German tribes. 

2. Rhaetia (with Yindelicia) and Xoricum were sub- 
dued in 15 B. c, Pannonia at a later date by Tiberius, a. d. 
33. They remamed in the hands of the Romans until the 
5th century, when they were overrun by the northern 
hordes. The Danube was lined with a succession of 
strongly fortified towns. 

3. Rhaetia was bounded by the Danube on the X., 
the Alps on the S., the Rhine on the W., and the Oenus, 
Imi, a tributary to the Danube on the E. It corresponds 
with the Ti/rolj and parts of Sicitzerland, Baden^ and 
Bavaria. 

4. Augustus divided it into two provinces, Yindelicia 
in the X., and R h a e t i a in the S. The capital of the former 
was A u g u s t a V i n d e 1 i c o r u m , ^ ugsh urg^ made a Roman 
colony 14 b. c. ; and of the latter, Tridentum, Trent^ on 
the Athesis. 

5. Noricum was bounded by the Danube on the K., 
the Oenus on the AY., the Alpes Yenetae, and the river 
Savus on the S., and Pannonia on the E. It corresponds 
with Styria^ Carinthia, and part of Austria. 

6. Two large tributaries to the Danube take their rise 
in this province, viz. : the Dravus, Brave, and the Savus, 



1. What brought Rhaetia, Norictira, and Pannonia into notice ? 2. WTien were 
they severally subdued, remaining in the hands of the Romans until when, when 
what hefell them? 3. How was Rhaetia bounded? It corresponds with what 
parts of modern Europe? 4. How did Augustus divide it? JS'ame the capital of 
each province ? 6. How was Noricum bounded, corresponding with what present 



EUROPA. 277 

Save^ which flow towards the E., joming the Danube m 
Pannonia. 

7. The chief towns were: 1, Lanreacum or Lauria- 
cum, now Lorch^ near Ens^ on the Danube, the station of 
the Roman fleet, and the headquarters of the 2d legion ; 
2, Juvavum, Saltzburg^ on a branch of the Oenus; and 3, 
Norcia, the old capital of the country, in the interior, 
near which the Romans were defeated by Cimbri, b. c. 113. 

8. Pannonia was bounded by the Danube on the N. 
and E., by JSToricum on the W., and Illyria on the S. ; it in- 
cludes Sclavonia, Croatia, and western Hungary. 

9. It was divided into two provinces, Superior and 
Inferior, the line of division commencing at the mouth 
of the Arrabo, Radb, and passing by the western end of 
the lakePelso, Flatten See. 

10. The chief towns were: 1, Vindobona, Vienna, 
Wien, the chief station of the Roman fleet on the Danube, 
and the headquarters of a Roman legion. It was taken and 
plundered by Attila, but continued to he a flourishing town 
under the Lombards. It was here that the emperor Marcus 
Aurelius died, a. d. 180. 2, Carnuntum, somewhat lower 
down the river, the headquarters of the Romans in the 
Marcomannic war; 3, Siscia, JSisse/c, the most important 
place in the province ; 4, Mursa, JEsseJc, on the Dravus, 
where Constantius defeated Magnentius, a. d. 351 ; 5, 
Cibalis or Cibalae, the birthplace of the emperor Ya- 
lentinian, and the place where Constantine defeated Licinius, 
A. D. 314; and 6, Sirmium, on the Savus, under the 
Romans the capital of the province, a very important post in 
the Dacian war, and the birthplace of the emperor Probus. 



tl.—fSarmatia Eu^opaea. 

1. Sarmatia was bounded by the Vistula on the "W"., 
the Tanais on the E., the Tyras and Euxine Sea on the S., 
and the Oceanus Sarmaticus, Baltic, on the N., and corre- 
sponds to the Scythia of Herodotus. It thus embraces 
Mussia, with parts of Poland and Prussia. 

2. Very little was known of this vast district : the 

provinces? 6. What rivers in Noricum ? 7. What were the chief towns of Nori- 
cum? 8. now was Pannonia bounded, including what modern provinces? 9. 
What were its divisions ? 10. What were the chief towns, Hcverally how noted? 

1. How was Sarmatia bounded, embracing what countries of modern Europe? 
2. What was known of this district by the ancients, name the mountains and 



278 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

range of the Ural\B described under the names Rhipaei 
and H y p er b o r e i M o nt e s . The great rivers which pour 
their waters into the Pontus Euxinus were: the Tanais, 
Z^ow, the Borysthenes, Dnieper^ the Hypanis, -Sow^, 
and the Tyras, Dniester. The coast of the Euxine was 
colonized by the Greeks ; but of the interior, the names of 
the Scythian or Sarmatian tribes alone are recorded. 

3. The chief of the Sarmatian tribes were: 1, the 
Tauri, in Chersonesus Taurica, Crimea; 2 and 3, the 
Koxolani andlazyges, N". of the Palus Maeotis, or Sea 
of Azof ; 4, the Bastarnae, between the Tyras and 
Borysthenes ; 5, the Neuri, N. of them, between the Vis- 
tula and Borysthenes; 6, the Budeni, still farther jN". ; 
7, the Yenedae, on the shores of the' Baltic; 8, the 
Agathyrsi to the N". E. ; 9, the Alauni, between the 
upper courses of the Tanais and Borysthenes; and 10, the 
Hamaxobii, to the S. of them. 

4. The chief towns were : 1. On the Pontus Euxinus ; «, 
Tyras, at the mouth of the river of the same name, proba- 
bly on the site of the modern Ackjermann ; 5, Olbia, 
Olbiopolis, or Miletopolis, now Kudah^ near the 
mouth of the Borysthenes and at its junction with the Hy- 
panis, a Milesian colony ; c, Tanais, of which the ruins are 
at Ka88atche% at the head of the Palus Maeotis. 2. The 
following three in the Chersonesus; a, Panticapaeum, 
now KerUch^ on the Cimmerian Bosporus, a Milesian 
colony, the capital of an independent state in these parts ; 
^, Theodosia on the eastern; and c, Chersonesus, 
founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Heraclea, on the 
western coast. 



This completes our brief survey of the geography of 
Europe, as known to the ancients ; and it will be proper for 
us now to present a similar sketch of that part of Asia 
called Asia Major, from which that part which we have 
already considered in ample detail is distinguished by the 
name of Asia Minor. Proceeding eastward from the 
Euxine toward the Caspian, we begin with Colchis, Iberia, 
and Albania. 

rivers, by whom were the coasts of the Euxine colonized? 3. Name the chief tribes 
of Sarmatia, and point out their places of abode. 4. What were the chief towns, 
and where? 



ASIA MAJOE. 279 



CHAPTER V. 
ASIA MAJOR. 

1* — Colchis J Iberia^ and •llbania. 

1. These three countries occupied the high ground be- 
tween the Pontus Euxinus and the Mare Caspium, Colchis, 
now Mingrelia^'bemg adjacent to the former, Albania, now 
Daghestan, and /Shirvan, to the latter, and Iberia, now 
Georgia, between the two. 

2. Colchis was bounded on the W. by the Euxine, on 
the IST. by M. Caucasus, on the E. by Iberia, and on the S. 
by the Acampsis, {lomk-Su.) On the S. and S. W. the 
boundaries were somewhat indefinite, and were often con- 
sidered to extend as far as Trapezus, (Trebizond.) With 
the exception of the maritime plain, it is mountainous ; the 
valleys yielded flax, the manufacture of which was the chief 
employment of the people. 

3. The chief river is the P ha sis, JRion or I^az, which 
flows with a westerly course into the Euxine. Colchis is 
best known to us from its connection with the Argonautic 
expedition; the town of Ae a was supposed to have been 
there ; it is, however, very unlikely that the Argonauts really 
sailed so far. The chief towns in historical times were the 
Grecian colonies of Dioscuri as and Phasis, also called 
Sebastopolis, although this is denied by some writers. 

4. Iberia, S.part of the modern Georgia, in the centre of 
the isthmus between the Euxine and the Caspian, was bound- 
ed on thelSr.by the Caucasus, on the W.by Colchis, on the E. 
by Albania, and on the S. by Armenia. It was surrounded 
on every side by mountains, through which there were only 
four passes. Sheltered by these mountains, and watered by 
the Cyrus {Kour) and its upper tributaries, it was famed 
for a fertility of which its modern name (from Tewpyos) 
remains a witness. It was fertile in grain, oil, and wine. 

1. What region did Colchis, Iberia, and Albania occupy? 2. How was Colchis 
bounded, having what sort of surface, and noted for what product? 3. What was 
the chief river, from what is Colchis best known to us, what were the chief towns 
io, Mstorical times ? 4. How was Iberia bounded, for what famed, fertile in what ? 



280 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

5. The chief town was Harmozica, now Armassi, on 
the right bank of the Cyrus. The lb e res or Iberi were, 
and are still, among the most perfect specimens of the Cau- 
casian race. They were divided into castes, and were more 
civilized than the Colchians and Albanians. A fortified pass 
crossed M. Caucasus out of this province towards the IN"., 
which was called Caucasiae, Sarmaticae, and some- 
times Caspiae Pylae. 

6. Albania, jSchirica7i, Daghestan, in the S. E. part of 
Georgia, was bounded E. by the M. Caspium, W. by Iberia, 
by the rivers Cyrus and Araxes on the S., and by M. Ce- 
raunius on the N". The range of Caucasus penetrates 
through the central region to the very shores of the Cas- 
pian, leaving broad and fertile plains on either side. 

T. The C yr us, Kom\ is the chief river : it rises in the 
Moschici Montes, receives numerous important tributaries, 
particularly the Oambyses, lor a or Yori, with the Ala- 
zonius, Alazan, on its left, and the Araxes, Eraskh or 
Aras on its right bank, and discharges itself into the Cas- 
pian Sea. The pass across Caucasus, named Albaniae 
Pylae, was near Derhend. The Albanians, a Scythian 
tribe, were a numerous, fierce, and warlike people, particu- 
larly strong in cavalry. 

8. These countries, at least Colchis and Iberia, were 
nominally subject, at first to Persia, and afterwards to 
Kome ; in reality they were all independent. 



1. Armenia was divided into Armenia Major, and 
Armenia Minor. The former, called Armenia Pro- 
pria, comprising Mrzeromn, Kars^ Yan, and M'iva7i, was 
bounded on the N. E. and N. by the Cyrus, which divided 
it from Albania and Iberia ; on the N". AV. and N. by the 
Moschici Mountains and the Euphrates, JPhra% which divid- 
ed it from Colchis and Armenia Minor ; on the S. and S. E. 
by the mountains called Masius, Mphates, and Gordiaei, (the 
prolongation of the Taurus,) and the lower course of the 

5. What was the chief to-wn, what is said of the Iberians, what pass in the 
N, ? 6. How was Albania bounded ? It is penetrated by what mountains ? T. 
What was the chief river, and what its course, what pass across Caucasus, what 
the character of the Albanians? 8. What is said of the political position of these 
countries ? 

1. How was Armenia divided, and how was each part respectively bounded ? 



ASIA MAJOR. 281 

Araxes, which divided it from Mesopotamia, Assyria, and 
Media. It still retains its ancient name. 

2. Armenia Minor, was bomided on the E. by the 
Euplirates ; on the N. and N. W. by the mountains Scoe- 
d!ces, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, dividing it from Pontus 
and Cappadocia, and on the S. by the Taurus, dividing it 
from Commagene in N. Syria, so that it contained the coun- 
try E. and S. of the city of /Siwas, as far as the Euphrates 
and the Taurus. 

3. Armenia Major or Propria consists of a highly 
elevated plateau, surrounded on all sides by mountains, 
and containing the sources of some of the largest rivers of 
Asia. The northern range was named Abus, Ak J)ar/h, 
the highest point of which is the Ararat of Scripture, on 
which the Ark rested after the deluge. The southern 
range, named ISTiplifitcs, ISalcm, runs in nearly a straight 
line from M. Taurus to the Caspian Sea, and in its eastern 
extremity was known as CaspiusMons. 

4. The rivers are, a, the Euphrates, O. T. Phrat, now 
JEJlJPhrat^ which is formed by two confluent streams, rising, 
the one in M. Abys, the other in M. Scoedises ; b, the 
Tigris, the Iliddekel of Scripture, which rises in the 
western parts of the province, not far from the valley of the 
Euphrates, and runs towards the E. in its upper course ; 
and c, the Araxes, also called Phasis in its upper course, 
and in Scripture Pison, now Aras, which rises to the N". 
of M. Abus, and joins the Cyrus not far from its mouth. 
There is a large lake in the S., named Arsis sa, X. Van. 

5. The cUmate is generally severe, the high ranges 
being covered with snow for the greater part of the year ; 
the valleys, however, enjoy a warm, and some an exces- 
sively hot temperature. The soil in the latter was very 
productive ; the mountains were rich in minerals, iron, 
copper, and gold. 

6. The territorial divisions of Armenia, though nu- 
merous, are unimportant. The chief towns were Ar- 
taxata on the Araxes, built by Artaxias, the founder of 
the Armenian kingdom, and burnt down by the Komans, 
under Corbulo ; andTigrilnocerta on the Tigris, (already 
mentioned elsewhere,) built by Tigranes as his capital. 



2. How was Armenia Minor bounded? 3. Of what does Armenia Major consist, 
and by what mountains is it surrounded? 4. What are the rivers oif Armenia, 
how called in Scripture? What lalco in the 8. ? 6. What is said of the climate, 
the soil, and of the productions of the mountains ? 0. What is said of the territo- 



282 ANCIENT GEO&EAPIIY. 

7. Armenia underwent various political changes : it 
was at one time under the Assyrians : it formed part of the 
Persian, Median, and Macedonian empires : it separated 
from the Syrian dynasty of the Seleucidae, b. c. 189, and 
remained independent until 5 b. c, when the Romans 
and Parthians contended for it, the former ultimately pre- 
vailing. 

^.—tJWesopotwmia* 

1. Mesopotamia, in the O. T. Aram N'aharaim, ^. e. 
Syria hetioeen the rivers^ in the Septuaginta, M^a-cmoTaiiia 
'XvpCas, now £Jl lesira, i. e. The Island^ named from its posi- 
tion between the two great rivers of this region, was 
bounded by the Tigris on the E., the Euphrates on the W., 
the Median wall on the S., and Mons Masius on the N. It 
consists of an extensive plain, arid and unfruitful towards 
the S., but in other parts fertile and adapted for pastoral 
purposes : the sides of M. Masius yielded timber ; in the 
S,, or desert part, there were numerous wild animals, 
such as wild asses, gazelles, ostriches, and lions. 

2. There are two considerable tributaries to the Eu- 
phrates, the Bellas and theChaboras, Chahur, with its 
affluent, the Mygdonius, lakjdkjah. 

3. Mesopotamia is interesting to us from its connection 
with Scripture history: it formed that part of Aram 
which was distinguished, as above, by the addition of N"a- 
haraim: " XJr of the Chaldees,'* the native place of 
Abraham, was here, though its position is somewhat doubt- 
ful: Haran is identified with Garrhae on the Bellas : the 
river Chebar is probably the Chahoras : Carchemish, 
where Pharaoh Necho engaged with Nebuchadnezzar, is 
the same as Circesium at the mouth of the Chaboras; 
Sarug is probably Batnae\ and Zoba is by some con- 
sidered to have been the town of Nisihis^ in the N". E. of 
the province. 

4. The chief towns were, <2, Nisibis, (the ruins near 
Nisihin^ the capital of a district named Mygdonia, (about 
the sources of the Mygdonius;) &, EdessaorCallirhoe 

rial divisions of Armenia, and -what of the chief towns ? 7. Through what political 
changes did Armenia pass ? 

1. How was Mesopotamia bounded, what sort of country is it? 2. What con- 
siderable tributaries has the Euphrates? 3. What renders Mesopotamia particu- 
larly interesting ? What is said of the places found in it ? 4. What were the 
chief towns? 



ASIA MAJOE. 283 

or Antiochia Callirhoe, the capital of Osrhoene, and 
the seat of an independent kingdom from 137 b. c. to 216 
A. D., of which Abgarus was king, about the Belias ; it is now 
Vrfah; c, Nicephorium, orCallinicum, now Hakkah^ 
on the Euphrates ; andc?, Atra, Atrae,or Hatra,near the 
Tigris, now Hadr^ S. W. of Mosul. 

4. — Mabylonia. 

1. Babylonia, now AraJc Arahi, extended along the 
right (W.) bank of the Tigris from the Median wall, which 
separated it from Mesopotamia, to the Persian gulf: south- 
wards it was bounded by the great Arabian desert, the 
line of demarcation running parallel to the course of the 
Euphrates : it is an unbroken, alluvial plain, intersected 
by canals, with no wood or stone of any land. As a provi- 
sion for building it possesses, however, abundance of clay 
for bricks, and numerous springs of naphtha, which serve 
for cement. The soil is very rich. 

2. The Euphrates and Tigris unite in this province, and 
are thenceforth called Pa sit igr is, /SAcj^^-e^'-^Lra^ ; (some 
geographers, denying this, apply the name Pasitigris to 
quite a different river, probably the Karoon :) the quantity 
of alluvial deposit brought down by them has considerably 
altered the point of junction and the coast of the Persian 
gulf. In order to regulate the flow of these rivers, which 
were liable to periodical floods, and also to produce the 
irrigation necessary for the soil, numerous canals were 
formed, four of which crossed from the Tigris, near Se- 
leucia, to the Euphrates : the chief of these was called 
Naarmalcha, i. e. the Royal River or the King^s Canal. 
A portion of the waters of the Euphrates was drawn off by 
one named Naarsares into a large lake, and thence by 
another named Pallacopas, and by a series of lagoons, to 
the Persian gulf. 

3. Babylonia had certain districts designated by par- 
ticular names, such as Chaldaea, about the course of the 
Euphrates from Babylon to the sea: Messene in the 
upper part of the province ; and a second Messene about 
the mouth of the Pasitigris. In the Scripture the whole 
land is called Shinar. 

1. Ho-w was Babylonia bounded? Wbat sort of country is it ? 2. What rivers 
unite in this province, producing what eftect, and requiring what artificial means 
for regulating their flow ? 3. How was Babylonia divided, the whole land how 



284: ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

4. The chief city was Babylon, the Babol of the Old 
Testament, (the rums at and around Ililla/i,) on the 
Euphrates, the most magnificent city of ancient Asia ; it 
extended on both banks of the river in the form of a 
square, each side of Avhich was 15 miles in length; the 
Avestern quarter contained the temple of Belus, tlie ruins of 
which are now called J] Irs Nhnroud^ and the palace of Se- 
miramis ; the eastern, the palace of Nebuchadnezzar and the 
hanging gardens. Babylon was taken by Cyrus, b. c. 538. 

5. Tlic other important cities of Babylonia were, «, 
Seleucia ad Tigrin, also called S. Babylonia, S. As- 
sy riae, and S. Parthorum, on the Tigris, was founded 
by Seleucus I. Nicator, and rose into importance after the 
fall of Babylon : it was well situated for commercial pur- 
poses : ^, Ciinaxa, on the Euphrates, not far from the 
Median wall, flimous for the battle fought here between the 
younger Cyrus and his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in 
which the former was killed 401. b. c. 

C. The Babylonian empire extended, from 625 to 538 
B. c, over the surrounding countries of Mesopotamia, Phoe- 
nicia and Syria, to the border of Egypt. 

5, — Jissyria. 

1. Assyria, now JTi^r^/s^a??., in the proper and nar- 
rowest sense, extended along the left (E.) bank of the 
Tigris, which divided it on the "W. and N. W. from Meso- 
potamia and Babylonia, and was bounded on the N. and E. 
by M. Niphates and M. Zagrus, which separated it from 
Armenia and JMedia, and on the S. E. by Susiana. 

2. The northern districts are mountamous ; the Gordi- 
aei Montes run parallel to the course of the Tigris for 
some distance, and in places liem it in between rocky bar- 
riers. Zagrus sends out numerous lateral ridges towards 
the W., which gradually open as the range advances south- 
wards, and finally decline into the broad plain which skirts 
the lower course of the Tigris. These ranges are now 
named the 3fountams of Kurdistan and JLoiiristati. 

3. The rivers of Assyria have a uniform course towards 
the S. W., and are all tributary to the Tigris : the most 
important were, a, the L y c u s , or Z ab a t u s , Great Zab : 

called in Scripture? 4. What and where was the chief city of Babj'lonia? 5. 
What other cities wore in Babylonia, and how noted? C. Over what countries did 
the Babylonian empire extend, during what period? 

1. How waa Assyria bounded ? 2. Whatiatho facooftho country? S. What 



ASIA MAJOK. 285 

^,thc Caprus, LittleZah: c, the Physcufl, orTornod- 
otus, Odorneh ; and </, the Gyndcs, which it ih very 
difficult to identify ; pcrliaps it in the J\erah^ pcjrhaps tlie 
same as tlie iJela.s, or Sill a, now the JJiala^ which flillH 
into the Tigris just above Ctesiphon and Seleucia. 

4. Assyria contiiins fertile valleys and phiins, but is de- 
ficient in wood, with the exception of palms and cypresses. 

5. The territorial divisions worthy of notice are, «, 
Aturta, along the course of the Tigris immediately about 
Nineveh ; h, Adiabenc, a more extensive district including 
the former, which reached from the Caprus to the sources 
of the Lycus; and c, Gordyene, on the border of Arme- 
nia, where the Oarduchi chielly lived. In Hcripture this 
country is designated as Ashur. 

C. The chief towns of Assyria were, a, Ninus, or 
Nineveh, the capital: it stood on the E. side of the Tigris, 
at the upi)er part of its course, opposite to where Mosul 
now is, in the distiict of Aturia. The walls formed a cir- 
cumference of 00 miles and were 100 feet high. It was so 
thoroughly destroyed by Cyaxures 000 b. c, that its posi- 
tion is rarely noticed by ancient writers: &, Larissa, or 
llesen, just above the junction of the Lycus : <?, Ctesi- 
phon, oj)posite kSeleucia, one of the royal residences of 
the Parthian kings; and c/, Arbcla, a considc^rablc place 
between the Capi-us and the I^ycus, the headquarters of 
Darius at the time of liis iinal defeat by Alexander : the 
])attle itself took place at Gaugamela, on the banks of the 
Bumadus. 

7. Assyria is the name of an empire as well as a 
country : as such, it extended over Babylonia, Media, and 
Persia, and, imder Shalmanescr, b. c. 730, over Israel and 
Phoenicia. It was subverted by the Medea and Babylo- 
nians GOO B. c. 

O. — Persist 

§ 1. Under tlie title of Persis we include that portion 
of the old Persian monarchy, which, Q,^\\(n\Jfars ov l^arnistan 
in modern Persian and Arabic, and Persia in English, was 
bounded on the W. by M. Zagrus and the Tigris, on the 
8. by the Persian Gulf, on the N. by the Caspian Sea and 

■were tlio riverH of ABHyrla? 4. What waH lh« faco of th« country, and what \h Hald 
of Horno of its productionn? 5. What territorial diviHiouH wortny of notice V 6. 
Wliat and whoro wdro the cldcf towns? 7. Of what oIbo, extending over what 
coutitri(rH, Ih AHKyria tlio narnoV 

1. Wliat is included under tho title of Perslfl ? What dietinctlona were there ? 



286 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

M. Paropamisus, and on the E. by the Indus. The east- 
ern provinces were sometunes distmguished by the collec- 
tive name Ariana : the western, on the other hand, received 
no general name. A brief notice of each of the provinces 
will suffice, as they are not often mentioned by classic 
writers. 

1. Susiana. § 2. Susiana, now JDiuzistan, was 
bounded by the Tigris on the "W., the Persicus Sinus and 
river Aro^is on the S., the ranges of Parachoathras on the 
E., and Media on the JST. 

§ 3. The interior is mountainous : the maritime district 
an extensive sandy plain ; and the intermediate valleys fer- 
tile and beautiful. 

§ 4. The chief rivers were the Choaspes, now the 
iLerah^ Karoon^ or Kara jSu, and its tributary, the Eu- 
laeus, now Abzal, (some say this is the JTaroo?!,) which 
nnite below Susa and flow into the Pasitigris. 

§ o. The capital was Susa or Shushan, on the Choas- 
pes, the site of which is occupied, as recent travellers cer- 
tify, by the town of Shustei\ i. e. " Little Shicsh.^^ 

S. Media. § 6. Media, now7";'a>v-^Jem?', and ^^er5^- 
Ja7i^ was bounded by the Cyrus, Araxes, and Caspius Mons 
on the IsT.,. M. Zagrus on the W., Susiana on the S., and 
Parthia and the great salt desert on the E., and Parthia, 
Hyrcania, and the Caspian on the N. E. 

§ T. This extensive province contains regions widely 
distinct in climate and character : the northern district of 
Aiv o-p at e n e, Azerbij an, is moimtainous and cold, with 
some fertile sj^ots, such as the shores of the large Lake of 
Spauta, U7'ii7nii/ah, vrhose waters were singularly bitter 
and acrid: the chief river in this part is the Amardus, 
Kizil- Ozien, which flows into the Caspian. M e d i a M a g n a 
is also mountainous, being intersected by the lateral ranges 
of the two great chains of M. Zagrus, JSAirdistan, and M. 
Caspius, JElburz 3Its., between which it lies. There are, 
however, some spacious plains, (particularly the Misaei 
Campi, celebrated for a superior breed of horses,) and rich 
open valleys. Towards the S., the province enters upon 
the great sandy desert of central Persia. 

§ 8. The chief towns were, a, Ecbatana, the Achmetha 



2. How was Susiana bounded ? 3. What is the face of the country ? a What 
were the chief rivers? 5. What was the capital city? 6. How was Media 
bounded ? 7. What is the nature of this province, what is the chief river, and what 
mountain ranges and plain are there ? 8. What were the chief towns ? 9. What 



ASIA MAJOR. 287 

of the O. T., Hamadan^ in the southern district : 5, Ragae, 
on the border of Hyrcania: c, Phraaspa or Yera, per- 
haps more frequenty written Phraata, the winter resi- 
dence of the Parthian kings, in the upper valley of the 
Amardus: and c?, Gazaca, now Tahreez^ in theN. of Atro- 
patene, the summer residence of the kings of Media. 

§ 9. Media was an independent monarchy from the time 
of Dejoces, b. c. 708, to the conquest of Cyrus, b. c. 658, 
(150 years.) It extends westward into Asia Minor. 

3. Per sis Proper. § 10. Persis in the narrower 
sense, Farsistan^ was bounded on the S. by the Persian 
Gulf, on the W. by the Parachoathras, dividing it from 
Susiana, on the E. by Car mania, and on the N. by Parthia. 
The upper part of the province, called Paraetacene, isa 
sandy waste : the sea-coast is hot and swampy : the centre 
is broken up with numerous ranges, running for the most 
part parallel to the Persian Gulf, and enclosing beautiful 
valleys : the waters, not finding an outlet to the sea, collect 
in lakes. 

§ 11. The chief river was the Araxes, no^ Bend-Emir^ 
which feeds the lake of Baklitegan : not far from its left 
bank stood the capital, Persepolis, which was partly de- 
stroyed by Alexander. Large ruins of this place are now 
to be seen at Takhti-Iemschid : Pasargadae, the burial- 
place of Cyrus and other Persian kings, is supposed to have 
been near the eastern boundary. The exact site is doubt- 
ful. 

J:. Cai-mania. § 12. Carmania, now Kerman^ ad- 
joined Persis along the shores of the Persian Gulf: it was 
bounded on the W. by Persis, on the N. by Parthia, on 
the E. by Gedrosia, and on the S. by the Persicus Sinus. 

§ 13. The northern half, called C. Desert a, is a sandy, 
saline desert: the southern, callecj, C. Propria, contains 
many rich oases and valleys between the ridges which 
fringe the central plateau of Persia, occupying the inter- 
vening space between the desert and the sea. A portion 
of the coast is so fertile in fruit, that it is now called the 
Paradise of Persia. 

§14. Carman a, the capital, the ruins of which are 



was the political position of Media, during what period, extending how far? 10. 
How was Persia Proper bounded, and what sort of country is it? 11. What was 
the chief i-iver, what and where the capital, destroyed by whom, v/hat other noted 
city was where ? 12. Where was Carmania, how bounded ? 13. What was and is 
the character of the country? 14, What and where was the capital? 15. Where 



288 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

called Kerman^ was situated in the centre of the province, 
in a fertile oasis to the W. of the rich valley of ]S"urman- 
sheer. 

0. Parthia. § 15. Parthia, Parthyaea, Par- 
thiene, j)art of what is now Khorassan^ lay to the K. of 
Persis and Carmania, between Media on the W. and Aria 
on the E. and N. E. M. Labutas, a continuation of M. Cas- 
pius, separated it on the ]^. from Hyrcania. It comprises 
the N". W. portion of the table-land of Persia, with which 
the ancients had little acquaintance, and the moderns very 
little more. Only the N". part seems to have formed the 
proper country of the Parthi, a very warlike people of 
Scythian origin, especially celebrated as horse-archers. 

§ 16. The usual point of access from Media was by the 
CaspiaePortae, across a southern limb of the Elburz 
chain, somewhere in the neighborhood of Eagae. With 
the exception of the IST. frontier, it is a flat, dry, barren 
steppe. The capital, named Hecatompylos, was situated 
near the base of M. Labutas, about 157 English miles from 
the Caspiae Pylae or Portae. 

6. Hyrcania. §17. Hyrcania, now Mazanderan and 
Astrahad^ occupied the S. and S. E. shores of the Mare 
Caspium, from the river Charindas to the Ochus. which 
formerly discharged itself into that sea. 

§ 18. It is a mere maritime strip, hedged in on the S.by 
M. Labutas, very fertile but unhealthy, and in ancient 
times much infested by wild beasts. 

T, Aria. § 19. Aria, the eastern part of Khorassan^ 
was bounded on the IST. by the Sariphi Montes separating it 
from Morgiana and Hyrcania, on the E. by the country of 
the Paropamisadae, on the S. and "W. by sandy deserts. It 
consists of an extensive plain bounded on the N". and E. by 
high mountains. The latter contain some fertile valleys, 
and the plain occasional oases, but with these exceptions it 
is a mere desert. 

§ 20. The chief river is the Arius or Arias, now 
Herirood^ which probably in earlier ages flowed into the 
Cas23ian, but now loses itself in the sands : the capital was 
situated on its banks, and named Alexandria Ariana, 

waB Parthia situated, comprising what ? What is said of the Parthi? 16. What 
was the usual point of access from Media, what is the character of the country, 
what and where the capital? 17. What regions did Hyrcania occupy ? 18. What 
Bort of country is it, what people, famous for what, lived in the E. part, what and 
where was the capital ? 19. How was Aria bounded, consists of wliat, what is the 
character of the country? 20. What was the chief river, wliich has undergone 



ASIA MAJOR. 289 

now Herat, having been visited by Alexander on Ms march 
through this country, and probably enlarged by him. 

8. Drangiana. § 21. Drangiana, now Sedjestdn or 
jSeista?i, was a portion of the table-land adjacent to Parthia 
and Carmania on the W., Gedrosia on the S., Aria on the 
N. and Arachosia on the E. It lies in a depression of the 
plateau, the lowest point of which is marked by the large 
lake Aria, Zareh, which receives the waters of the Ery- 
mandrus, Hirmend^ and the Pharnacotis, Ferrah-rood. 
The soil is dry and sandy, but fertile when irrigated : the 
shores of Aria Lacus and the valleys of the Erymandrus, 
(also called Erymanthiis^ and Pharnacotis, on the former 
of which the Euergetae, who befriended the army of Cyrus, 
lived, are the most habitable regions. The capital of Dran- 
giana, Prophthasia, was situated near the N. shore of 
Aria Lacus. 

0« Gedrosia. § 22. Gedrosia, now the S. E. part of 
JBeloochistan^ was bounded by the Mare Erythraeum or 
Arabicus Sinus on the S., the Indus, separating it from 
India, on the E., Drangiana and Arachosia on the N"., and 
Carmania on the W. 

§ 23. The sea-coast of this province is swampy, sandy, 
and perfectly barren : inland the ground rises by a succession 
of terraces of greater or less extent towards the sandy 
desert, producing little besides aromatic shrubs: they 
(these terraces) admit of cultivation about the bases of the 
mountains which separate them ; but the greater part of 
Gedrosia has ever been a sandy waste, the chief cause of its 
sterility being the want of a regular supply of water : the 
inhabitants are dependent upon artificial reservoirs for the 
greater part of the year. The armies of Cyrus and Semi- 
ramis are said to have perished in crossing this province, 
and Alexander's suffered severely. 

§ 24. The chief towns were, «, Pura, the capital, in the 
interior: 5, Oraea (Ora?) on the eastern, and Omana 
on the western part of the coast. 

lO. Arachosia. § 25. Arachosia, now S. E. part of 
Afghanistan and K. E. part of BeloocMstan^ was bounded 
on the W. by Drangiana, on the E. by the IndusJ on the 
N. by the district of the Paropamisadae, and on the S. by 

what change, -where and what was the capital? 21. What and where was Dran- 
giana, how situated, what the nature of the soil, the character of the country, 
what and where the capital ? 22. How was Gedrosia bounded ? 23. What are the 
physical features of this country ? 24. What and where were the chief towns ? 25, 
How was Arachosia bounded, derived its name from what, what sort of country 
13 



290 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Gedrosia. This province derives its name from its principal 
river, the Arachotus, probably the Waihend^ a tributary 
to the Erymandrus : it is mountainous, but fertile. The 
chief towns were Arachotus and Alexandria, both of un- 
certain position. 

11. The Paropamisadae. § 26. The Paropamisa- 
dae derived then* name evidently from the great range of 
Par opamisus, -S'mc^oo^oosA, on the S. declivities of which 
they lived in the neighborhood of Cabool and Ghuznee. 
The mountains attain a very great elevation northward, and 
are covered with snow for the greater part of the year : 
Alexander crossed them during his Indian expedition. 

§ 27. The chief river, the Cop hen orCophes Gdbool, 
flows into the Indus : it receives an important tributary 
from the I^., the Choes, Choaspes, or Evaspla, (for 
the same river is described under these three names,) now 
the Kerrcih^ which rises in the highest ridges of the Hindoo 
Koosh. The chief towns of this district were Gauzaca, 
Ghuznee or '-Ghizm^ and Ortospana or Carura, Cabool^ 
the capital of the tribe of the CaboHtae. 

IS. Bactria. § 28. Bactria, corresponding with the 
S. of Bokhara^ was bounded on the S. by M. Paropami- 
sus, E. by the i^T. branch of the same range, on the N. E. 
by the Oxus, and on the W. by Margiana. The greater 
part of this province is mountainous, but as we approach 
the Oxus, broad plains and steppes occur : the Oxus itself 
flows along an immense plain, extending from the central 
ranges of Asia to the Caspian Sea. This plain is generally 
barren ; but abundance of water rendered the soU of Bac- 
tria highly fertile. 

§ 29. The Oxus, Jihoun or Amoic, was a channel of 
communication between Eastern Asia and Europe, and prob- 
ably a considerable traffic was prosecuted through Bac- 
tria in ancient times, the Oxus conducting to the Caspian 
Sea, whence the Cyi'us afforded a passage westward. The 
capital of Bactria was Bactra or Zariaspa, JBalJch, on 
the river Bactrus or Dargidus, Dehas : the fortress of 
Aornus stood a little to the eastward of it. 

13. Sogdiana. § 30. Sogdiana, now parts of TurJc- 
estan and Bokhara., including the district still called Sogd, 



was it, what were the chief towns ? 26. Whence did the Paropamisadae derive their 
name, and what is said of their mountains? 27. WTiat were the chief rivers and 
the chief towns? 28. How was Bactria hounded? What was the character of the 
province ? 29. What advantages did the Oxus afford ? What was the capital of Bac- 



ASIA MAJ0J2. 291 

was separated on the S. from Bactriana and Margiana by the 
npiDer course of the Oxus, {Jihoun ;) on the E. and N. from 
Scythia by the Sogdii Comedarum aod Oxii Montes, (Kara- 
Dagh^ Alatan and Ak-Dagh^ and by the upper course of 
the Jaxartes, {Sihoun ;) and iDounded on the 'N. W. by the 
great deserts E. of the Sea of Aral. 

§ 31. Two chains of mountains occur in this province ; 
the Sogdii Montes, ITara-Dagh, and the Oxii, AIc- 
Dagh^ more to the W. : the latter divides the valleys of the 
Oxus and the Jaxartes. 

§ 32. The western half of the province consists of bar- 
ren, sandy steppes : the eastern contains some rich valleys : 
the S. part of the country, especially, was fertile and popu- 
lous. The chief towns were Alexandria Oxiana, 
ICurshee, some distance N". of the Oxus; Mar ac.anda, 
jSamarcand, the capital, in the fertile valley of the Polyti- 
m.et\iSj JTohik / and Alexandria Ultima or Alexan- 
drescata, on the Jaxartes, nesiv Khojend, the most north- 
erly town which Alexander founded. 

14. Margiana. § 33. Margiana, forjning the S. part of 
Khiva, S. W. part of Bokhara, and 'N. E. part of Khoras- 
san, lay W. of Bactria, bounded by the Oxus, on the N., the 
Sariphi Montes on the S., and Hyrcania on the W. The 
ancients were very slightly acquainted with it : mention is 
made of a river Margus, probably the Mborghab, and of 
a town, Alexandria or Autiochia Margiana on that river, 
possibly on the site of Merit. 

§ 34. Several of the provinces just described gave 
names to kingdoms far exceeding then- own limits. Media 
has already been noticed in this respect ; and it only re- 
mains to give a brief account of four others. — A, Per sis 
was the native land of Cyrus, and the powerful empire 
(rarely written JPersia by the ancients) which he founded 
received its usual title from it : it extended, at its greatest 
extent, to the Indus eastward, the Oxus and the Caspian 
Sea northward, beyond the boundary of Europe westward, 
and on the African continent as far as the Lybian desert 
and Cyrene : it existed from the time of Cyrus b. c. 559, 
to Alexander, b. c. 331, a period of 228 years. Susa and 
Ecbatana were the residences of the kings of Persia. 

tria, and -what fortress near it ? 30. How was Sogdian a bounded ? 31. "What moun- 
tains occur in this province ? 32. What was the character of this province, and what 
and where were the chief towns ? 33. Where was Margiana, forming what ? What 
river is mentioned, and what town ? 34. What is said of the Persia, and of the 



292 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 35. -5, Parthia gave name to an empire whicli existed 
from 250 B. c. to 226 A. d., and which extended from the 
Euphrates to the Indus and the Oxus : the residence of the 
Parthian monarchs was fixed at Ctesiphon on the Tigris in 
the winter, and at Ecbatana in the summer months. 

§ 36. (7, Bactria was the seat of an independent 
empire from 250 to 126 b. c. : we know httle of its ex- 
tent, but it appears to have comprehended, at one time, a 
great part of India and Thibet : it was merged into the 
Parthian empire. 

§ 37. The Persian empire was restored, a. d. 226, by 
Artaxerxes, and was co-extensive with the ancient limits 
of the Persian monarchies, viz., the Indus, the Oxus, and 
the Tigris : it existed under the dynasty of the Sassanidae 
until the middle ages. 

In reading the Roman poets it must be remembered 
that they constantly use Persae as well as Medi^ as a gen- 
eral term for the peoples E. of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
and especially for the Parthians. 

7,^Jndia^ Sinte^ Serica, 

1. § 1. India was a name used by the Greeks and 
Romans, much as the modern term JEast Indies^ to de- 
scribe the whole of the S. E. part of Asia, to the E., S., and 
S. E. of the great ranges of mountains now called the 
Solimcm and Himalaya Mountains^ including the two 
peninsulas of Hindustan^ and of JBurmah^ Gochhi- China, 
Siam^ and Malacca^ and also the islands of the Indian 
Archipelago. 

§ 2. India was divided into two parts by the river 
Ganges, into India intra Gangem, and India extra 
Gang em, the former including the peninsula oi Hindus- 
tan^ the latter the Burmese peninsula, and the Malay 
peninsula, which last was more particularly designated by 
the name of Aurea Chersonesus. 

§ 3. The ancients were acquainted with these regions 
chiefly through the visits of merchants, and hence their 
knowledge of the topography was very much confined 

Persian empire ? 35. What is said of tlie Parthian empire ? 36, What is said of 
the Bactrian empire ? 37. By -whom and ^vhen "was the Persian empire restored, 
having what extent ? 

1. Ho-w did the ancients use the name India, comprehending under it what 
region ? 2. How was India divided ? 3. How did the ancients become acquainted 



ASIA MAJOR. 293 

to the maritime districts. As little historical interest 
attaches to the towns, we shall confine ourselves to a brief 
survey of the prominent natural features. 

§ 4. The Indus on the W. border receives the waters 
of five considerable tributaries on its left bank, in the coun- 
try now called the Punjauh^ in the following manner. The 
Hydaspes, JBehat^ the northernmost of these five rivers, 
falls into the Ace sines, Ghenab^ which receives from the 
S., first the Hydra otes, Havee^ and then the Hyphasis, 
Gharra^ which has previously received, on the S. side, the 
Hesudrus or Zaradrus, Sutlej or Hesudru ^ and the 
Acesines itself falls into the Indus. 

§ 5. Alexander penetrated to the most easterly of these 
in his Indian expedition: mention is made in connection 
with this of T axil a, the capital of Taxiles, (his real name 
was Mophis or Omphis ;) the city stood in a large and fer- 
tile plain between the Indus and the Hydaspes, near the 
modern AttocJc: also of Mallorum Urbs, Moultan^ 2in.di 
ofPattala orPatala, probably Hyderabad. 

§ 6. Descending southwards, we come to Canthi 
Sinus, (xi^Z/'o/' ^i^^cA, and Barygazenus Sinus, Gulf 
of Camhay : the peninsula ends in Comaria Promon- 
torium. Gape Gomorin^ near which, oflTthe eastern coast, 
lies the important island of Geylon^ known to the ancients 
under various names, Tapr obane, Salic e or Simundu. 

§ 7. Besides the Ganges, the whole course of which 
was well known, mention is made of other large rivers of 
E. India, as the Dyardanes or Oedanes, Brahmaputra^ 
the Do an as, Irawaddy^ the Dorias, MeJcon^ and the 
Serus, Sang-Jcoi: the first of these discharges itself into 
the Gangeticus Sinus, JBay of Bengal^ the two next into 
the Sabaricus Sinus, G. of Martaban^ and the last into 
the Magnus Sinus, Ghina Sea. 

§ 8. The region between the Doanas and Dorias was 
known asAureaRegio, and the southeastern coast of the 
Gangeticus Sinus asArgenteaRegio. Opposite the ex- 
tremity of the Aurea Chersonesus, the large island 
Bonae Fortunae, Sumatra^ and beyond that Jabadii 
or Sabadii Insula, Java^ are situated. 

S. The Sinae. § 9. The Sinae occupied the course 

with these regions ? 4. What five great tributaries does the Indus receive ? 5. 
Hovsr far did Alexander penetrate, what town being mentioned in this connection? 
6. What gulfs, promontory, and island do we find farther southwards? 7. What 
rivers in E. India are mentioned by the ancients? 8. What names were given to 
different parts of this region, and what islands lay oif the coast ? 9. What region 



294: ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

of the eastern ocean from tlie border of India extra Gan- 
gem to Serica in the N., in what is now the S. E. part 
of China. Very little was known of this region. The river 
Ambastus is identified with the Camhoja^ and the Cot- 
tiaris with the Pe-Kiang^ with the town Cattigara, 
Canton^ near its mouth: Sinarum Sinus is the Gulf of 
Tongquin ; and the town Thinae, a place of extensive 
trade in the interior, was possibly near Naiiking. 

3. Serica. § 10. Serica lay N". of the Sinae, stretch- 
ing upwards to an undefined extent, and bounded by 
Scythia on the W. It corresponds with Mongolia and the 
!N". parts of China. 

§ 11. The mountain chain of the Altai are described 
under the names Auxacii and Annibi Mont es : the river 
Oechardes, which rises among them, is the Amoor ; and 
the river Bautisus, much farther S,, is the Hoang-ho. 

§ 12. The capital. Sera, was situated in the western 
part of the country : it was the mart for the valuable silks 
and stuffs Avhich were manufactured in this distant region, 
and which were carried by] an oA^erland route across the 
great sand/ desert of Kohi^ and the high chain of the 
Thianchan^ to the valley of the Oxus, and thus through 
Bactria and the Caspian Sea, to the civilized nations of 
Europe. 

S.—^cyithia and ^artnatia Jlslatica, 

1 • Scythia. § 1. Scythia, in its widest sense, com- 
prehended the whole of northern Asia, Serica excepted : it 
was bounded by the Rha, J^olga, on the W., and by Cau- 
casus, the Caspian, the Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes on the S. 
It was divided by I man s Mons (the Altai and SayansJco 
Mts.f) into Scythia intra Imaum and Scythia extra 
Imaum. Some authorities say that by Imaus M. we are to 
understand the chain of JBeloor^ which strikes towards the 
N". from the Hindoo Koosh : all this is very uncertain. 
Little was known of this wide region beyond the names and 
habits of the nomad tribes who roamed over the immense 
steppes that lie on either side of the central mountain 

■was occupied by the Sinae, and what is said of their rivers and to'svns? 10. Where 
•was Serica, corresponding with what? 11. What mountain chain is described 
under what names ? 12. What is said of the capital, its manufactures and com- 
merce ? 

1. TVhat did Scythia, in its widest sense, comprehend? How was it hounded? 



ASIA MAJOK. 295 

chains, dei^endent for their subsistence upon their flocks 
and herds. Of these tribes the most important were : 

§►2. The Massagctae, who lived IST. of the Jaxartes, 
in what is now the N. oi Independent Tartary / theSacae, 
N". E. of the Massagetae, as far as Serica, in the steppes of 
Central Asia, which are now peopled by the Kirghiz lOia- 
sales: the Isscdones, to the eastward, in Great Tartary : 
they were the easternmost people with whom the Greeks 
of the time of Herodotus had any intercourse : the Ari- 
maspi, in the ranges of the Altai, where they occupied 
themselves in working gold-mines, in connection with which 
occupation the fabulous account given of them by Herodo- 
tus, who calls them one-eyed people, is perhaps susceptible 
of a satisfactory explanation ; and the Argippaei, N". of 
the Caspian Sea, whose habits of shaving the head, and of 
riding on white horses, as related by Herodotus, mark 
them as the progenitors of the Calmuc/cs and Bashkirs. 

2, Sarmatia. § 3. The district between the Rha 
and the Tanais formed part of the undefined country 
named Sarmatia, which extended far beyond the confines 
of Asia over European Russia. Sauromataeor Sarma- 
tae, was the generic name for the numerous tribes who 
occupied this vast district, the most important of whom in 
Asiatic Sarmatia were : the Thyssagetae, in the N., on 
the E. shores of the Palus Maeotis : the A or si or A dor si, 
a powerful people who had their original settlements on the 
E". E. of the Caspian, but are chiefly found between the 
Palus Maeotis and the Caspian, S. E. of the Tanais, and the 
Siraceni, Siraci, or Siraces, also a powerful people, 
dwelling in the district of Siracene, E. of the Palus 
Maeotis as far as the river Rha. 

§ 4. The only towns known to the ancients were the 
colonies planted by the Asiatic Greeks along the shores of 
the Euxine, viz. : Tanais, at the mouth of the river Tanais : 
Phanagoria, on the peninsula formed on the eastern side 
of the Cimmerian Bosporus, {Straits of Kaffa or Feodo- 
sia:) Sinda, farther down the N. E. coast of the Euxine ; 
and Pity us, still farther down, near the Colchian border. 
A considerable trade was carried on from these towns, in 
skins, slaves, wood, and horses. 

2. Which were the most important of tho Scythian tribes, and where were their 
rcflpective places of abode ? 3. Where was Sarmatia, what was tho generic nam© 
of tho tribes of this district, and which were the most important? 4. What towns 
in Sarmatia were known to tho ancients, and whero were they? What trade was 
there? 



296 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 



1. Syria, still bearing the same name, but called in Ara- 
bic JEsh'jSham, vyas bounded on the N. W. and IST. by Ama- 
nus Mons, separating it from Cilicia and Cappadocia ; on the 
'N. E. by the Euphrates, separating it from Mesopotamia ; 
on the S. E, and S. by Arabia and Palaestina, and on the 
W. by the Mare Internum and Phoenicia. 

2. Within these limits there are contained two widely 
different districts, the mountainous region which skirts the 
shore of the Mediterranean and the northern frontier, and 
the great desert which stretches eastward to the Euphrates 
and southward to the border of Arabia. The former re- 
ceives its character from the ranges of Amanusin the X. 
and Libanus in the S., which are connected by a series of 
inferior heights : both of them attain a great elevation, 
Libanus being capped with snow almost throughout the 
year. At its southern extremity it sends out a lateral 
ridge, which, diverging gradually towards the N"., and in 
conjunction with a lofty ridge to the E. of Libanus, and 
nearly parallel with it, incloses a fertile valley : this eastern 
ridge was called Anti Libanus, and the valley between 
the two ridges, with its surrounding district, Coelesyria, 
i. e. Hollow Syria, 

3. The mountains secure to the "W. an abundant sup- 
ply of water: the chief river is the O routes, Nahr JEl- 
Ahsy^ which rises in Coele'syria, and flows behind (E.) of 
the mountain chains towards the IST. until within a short 
distance of its mouth, when it curves round towards the 
S. W., and empties into the Mediterranean. The only 
other noticeable river is the Chains, Nahr Koweik^ in the 
interior, which flows southwards, and discharges itself into 
a marsh on the borders of the desert. 

4. The desert itself was deficient in water, and con- 
sequently in vegetation : there are, however, numerous 
oases, which supported a larger population in ancient than 
in modern times. 

5. Syria was divided by the Romans into ten provinces, 
named for the most part after the mountains or towns in 

1. How was Syria bounded? 2. What are the physical aspects and the naoun- 
tains of this province ? 3. What advantage do the mountains aftord the surround- 
ing country, what is the chief river, and what other noticeable river is there, and 
what is the course of each ? 4. What is said of the Syrian desert ? 5. How did 



ASIA MAJOK. 297 

each.. The most important towns were, «, Samosata, 
Samosat or Someisat^ the capital of the province, and 
afterwards kingdom, of Commagene, in the IST., N. W. of 
Edessa, where the Euphrates was crossed by the route from 
Asia Minor to Mesopotamia, celebrated in literary history 
as the birthplace of Lucian, and in church history, as that 
of the heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, in the 3d century : ^, 
AntiochiaEpidaphneSjOradDaphnem, or adOron- 
tem, now Antalda in ruins, in Seleucis, on the Orontes, 
founded by Seleucus Nicator, and made the capital of the 
whole country : c, Apamea ad Or ont em, the capital of the 
province Apamene, in the valley of the Orontes, built by 
Seleucus on the site of Pella, and named after his wife 
Apama: c?, Emesa or Emissa, now Hums or Horns, 
higher up the valley, celebrated for the temple of the Sun, 
at which Heliogabalus ministered before he became em- 
peror : <?, Damascus, DameshJc^ Damascus, JEsJi-Sham, 
in the S., the ancient capital of Syria, one of the most an- 
cient cities of the world, mentioned as existing in the time 
of Abraham, (Gen. xiv. 15,) situated in a fruitful oasis, 
formed by the divided waters of the Chrysorrhoas, 
Barada, which passed through the town in five channels ; 
and lastly,/*,, Palmyra, ^c?mc>r, famed for its magnificent 
ruins, in an oasis in the desert province of Palmyrene, the 
capital of Zenobia. A small town Abila, to the N". W. of 
Damascus, gave name to the surrounding district of Abi- 
lene, mentioned in the New Testament, Luke iii. 1. 

6. Syria was the governing province of a powerful 
empire from 312 to 64 b. c, which extended under its 
founder, Seleucus Nicator, to the Indus, the Oxus and the 
Halys ; the capital of the Seleucidae was first fixed at Se- 
leucia, on the Tigris, and transferred thence to Antioch. 
Under the Romans the province of Syria included Phoe- 
nicia, and after 7 a. d., Judaea also. 



1 0.— Phoenicia, 

1. The proper name of the country which we know as 
Phoenicia is Phoenice; the form Phoenicia is found 
only in a doubtful passage of Cicero. Phoenice extended 

the Romans divide Syria, and what were the moBt important towns? 6. What la 
said of Syria in connection with the Seleucidae ? 

1. What and where was Phoenicia, how bounded, what the nature of the 



298 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

from the river Eleutherus, Nahr-el-Kebir^ on the N. to be- 
low Mt. Carmel on the S., and bounded on the E. by Coele- 
syria and Palestme. It was a mountainous strip of coast 
land, not more than 10 or 12 miles broad, hemmed in be- 
tween the Mediterranean and the chain of Libanus, whose 
lateral branches, running out into the sea in bold promon- 
tories, divided the country into valleys, which are well 
watered by rivers flowing down from Libanus, M. Leba- 
non^ and are extremely fertile in fi-uits and all vegetable 
productions, while the higher mountains were clothed with 
forests of cedar, which formed one of the most valuable 
exports of the country. 

2. The most important rivers passing from IST. to S. 
were, a, the Eleutherus, Nahr-el-Kebir : b^ the Sabba- 
ticus, Arlca: c, the river of Tripolis, Kadisha ; d^ the 
Adonis, Nahr-Ibrahim : e, the Lycus, Nahr-el-Kelh : 
/, the Magoras, Nahr-Beiru%\j Berytus : ^, the Ta- 
myras, Nahr-el-Damur^ between Berytus and Sidon ; A, 
the Leo or Bostrenus, Nahr-el-Auly : ^, th e great 
river, now called Litany and Kassimiyeh^ which flows 
from HeliopoHs S. S. W. through Coelesyria, and then, 
turning westwards, falls into the sea N. of Tyre, and which 
some call, but without sufficient authority, the Leontes: 
^, the Belus or Pagida, Numan or jRahicin ; and/, 
the Kishon, Kishon, N". of Mt. Carmel. 

3. The more important promontories on the coast 
were, 1, Theu-prosopon, JBas-esh ShuJcah : 2, Album 
Prom., Mas-el- Abiad : besides those 3, occupied by the 
cities of Tripolis, Byblus, Berytus, Sidon, Tyrus, 
andPtolemais. 

4. The position of Phoenice, with reference to Baby- 
lonia, the Persian gulf, and the various trading countries of 
central Asia, as the most accessible part of the Mediterranean 
coast for the transmission of merchandise, rendered it an 
important commercial country for the ancient world. The 
neighboring heights of Lebanon supplied timber for ship- 
building, and the open sea, which spreads westwards, ne- 
cessitated greater boldness and nautical skill than other 
nations possessed. 

5. In consequence of these advantages Phoenice became 
a flourishing and thickly populated country, and is espe- 

country, and what were its products ? 2. Name the most important rivers, 3. 
Name the promontories on the coast. 4. What is said of the commercial position 
of Phoenice ? 5. What resulted from these commercial advantages of Phoenice ? 



ASIA MAJOR. 299 

daily known as the seat of two most famous commercial 
cities, viz., Tyrus, of which the ruins are called /SW, but 
which is generally spoken of as Tyre, and Sid on, or in 
the English form, Zi don, the ruins of which are called 
Saida. 

6. Of these two cities Sidon was the more ancient : it 
possessed a double harbor and strong fortifications, and 
carried on. manufactures in glass and in purple dye : it was 
taken by Artaxerxes III. Ochus, and never regained its 
former prosperity. Tyre, situated somewhat to the S., was 
a colony from Sidon : it was first built on the main land, 
but, having been besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, it was re- 
built on a small island nearly half a mile distant : Alexan- 
der took this island-town, after a siege of seven months, by 
means of a moat which he formed, and which rendered 
Tyre, in after times, a peninsula. The town existed with 
various fortunes until the Crusades : it also had manufac- 
tories of glass and of purple dye. Small as it now is, it 
still retains some commercial importance. The other note- 
worthy towns have been mentioned in connection with the 
promontories. 

W.—lPalaestina. 

1. We come now to a land which, though small in ex- 
tent, abounds with objects of the highest and most lasting 
interest to the whole human race. In the Old Testament it 
is called first, the Land of Canaan, afterwards the Land 
of Promise, and in a later age, when the Hebrews were 
settled there, the Landoflsrael: the Romans called it 
Judaea, and ancient geographers, Palaestina, a name 
derived from the coast district of Philistia, and extended 
thence to the whole country : it is still called Palestine^ 
and sometimes, in reference to the great events which have 
taken place on its soil, the Holy Land. 

2. It was bounded on the W. by the Great Sea (as 
Scripture calls the Mediterranean) and by Phoenicia : on 
the N. by Syria : on the E. by the Arabian Desert : and on 
the S. and S. W. by the deserts which stretch N. of the 
head of the Red Sea as far as the Dead Sea and the Medi- 
terranean : here it was separated from Egypt by the small 

6. Which of these cities was the more ancient, and what historical ancl other facta 
are stated respecting each ? 

1. IIow is Palaestina called in the Old Testament, how by the Romans, by 
ancient geographers, how at present ? 2. How was Palaestina hounded ? 3. What 



300 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

stream called Torrens Aegypti, in Scripture the River of 
Egypt, (probably the brook El-Arish^ which fell into the 
Mediterranean at Rhinacolura, (JElArish^) the frontier town 
of Egypt. It attains its greatest breadth in the northern 
half, where it extends eastward as far as Mons Alsadamus, 
KelbSauran. 

3. The most remarkable feature in Palaestina is the 
Yalley of the Jordan, and the series of lakes connected 
with it. This valley lies considerably below the level of 
the Mediterranean, the depression at the Dead Sea amount- 
ing to 1312 feet. 

4. The Jordan is formed and fed by several great foun- 
tains, rising in the IST. around the base of Mount Hermon : 
the largest at Tell-el-Kadi, is called El Leddan, which, with 
another, somewhat smaller, forms what Josephus desig- 
nates as the Greater and Lesser Jordan. After a short 
southerly course, the second, called Baniasy, receives the 
third, the Hasbany, and these three united streams form 
the Jordan, which now flows southward, first through an ex- 
tensive marsh, at times overflowed with water, and called 
the lake Hiileh^ called in the O. T. Waters ofMerom, 
by geographers Semechonitis or Samachonitis La- 
cus: then through the Lake of Gennessaret, and after- 
wards along a broad^ flat valley, now called -E'^6^Ao7', to 
the Mare Mortuum or Dead Sea. The Arabs call the Jor- 
danes, Esh-Sheriah el Kebir^ or el Urdun. 

5. The Lake of Gennesaret, or Tiberias, other- 
wise called the Sea of 'Galilee, in the O. T. Chin- 
nereth, by the Arabs JBahr Tahariyeh^ is almost sur- 
rounded by hills, which render it liable to sudden and very 
violent gusts of wind. It is a beautiful sheet of* water, 
with a luxuriant vegetation on its banks: it is about 14 
miles in length and 8 in breadth, and its surface is 755 feet 
below the level of the Mediterranean. Its sweet waters 
abound with excellent fish. 

6. The Dead Sea, called in Scrij^ture the Salt Sea, 
by ancient geographers the Lacus Asphaltites, from 
the quantity of bitumen in it, also Mare Mortuum, is 
abjout 50 miles in length, and of varying width : it is in the 
S. E. of the country. Its shores are steep and barren ; its 

is the most remarkable feature of the country? 4. Where does the Jordan rise, 
and what is its course ? 5. The lake of Gennesareth, having what other names, is 
of what character and dimensions? 6. By what other names is the Dead Sea 
known, what are its dimensions, what its general character, and what the nature 



ASIA MAJOE. 301 

waters heavy, bitter, and strongly impregnated with salt 
and bitumen, their specific gravity averaging about 1,2005 
that of distilled water being 1,000 : and though it is not 
strictly true that no living creature is found in it or about 
it, yet, the general absence of birds and plants, combined 
with the awful stillness of the lake, has justly obtained for 
it the name of the Dead Sea. Its southern extremity lies 
in the once fertile vale of Siddim, the site of Sodom and 
Gomorrah and of the other cities of the plain. It has no 
visible outlet. 

7. Between the Jordan and the Mediterranean the coun- 
try is intersected by mountains. From the valley of the 
Jordan the hills rise on either side to a considerable eleva- 
tion, and form a couple of corresponding plateaus, which 
decline on the one side to the shores of the Mediterranean, 
and on the other to the Great Desert. The highest moun- 
tains are in the N., where Libanus and Anti-Libanus enter 
it: the latter rises to a peak in the lofty Herm on, and 
sends forth a ridge southwards to the Sea of Galilee. On 
the W. side of Jordan the remarkable hills are Tabor, 
Tur, S. W. of the Sea of Galilee: Carmelus Mons, Mt. 
C arm el, a long wooded ridge running out to the N". W., 
and terminating in a bold promontory: Ebal and Ger- 
izim in the centre of Samaria: Mount Ephraim, well 
covered with trees and shrubs ; and the hill country of Ju- 
dea, westward of the Dead Sea. On the E. side of Jordan 
we have to notice Alsadamus, Hauran^ a cluster of 
hills rising on the extreme range of the desert E. of the 
Sea of Galilee : Mt. Gilead, opposite Ebal and Gerizim : 
Poor, a short distance from the head of the Dead Sea; 
and ISTebo a little S. of it. 

8. The table-land, out of which these hiUsrise, is broken 
up by numerous valleys and ravines, directed mostly towards 
the Jordan: these valleys were exceedingly fertile, and 
even the table-land, with the exception of the highest por- 
tions, such as the desert of Judaea, admitted of cultivation. 
The soil, however, is generally thin, and hence great labor 
was bestowed upon the formation of terraces for the growth 
of the vine and other fruits. The maritime plain was re- 
markable for fertility : the upper portion of it, from Caesarea 
to Joppa, was named Saronas Planities, /S/iaro^, and 
the lower, Sephela Planities. The valley of Esdraelon, 

of its waters ? 7. What is the face of the country, and what hilla are to he noted, 
Ist on the W. side, 2d on the E. side of Jordan ? 8. What is the character of the 



302 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

on the banks of the Kishon, was also very rich ; and the 
greater part of Galilee was highly cultivated. On the 
other side of Jordan the table-land afforded good pasture- 
grounds, especally around the Basan Mons, the hill of 
J3ashan, the IN", part of the Mountains of Gilead. 

9. In the time of our Saviour, Palaestina, W. of the 
Jordan, was divided into three parts, viz. : Galilaea, Gali- 
lee, in the N., Samaria in the centre, and Judaea in the 
S. Neither of the first two touched the sea, Judaea pos- 
sessing the line of coast, to the border of Phoenicia. The 
eastern district, which had been occupied by the tribes of 
Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, was called Peraea, the name 
expressing the land beyond the river Jordan : it was sub- 
divided into the following districts : a, Peraea in the nar- 
rower sense, from the Arnon to the J abb ok, or even 
somewhat beyond that river: 5, De capo lis, the district 
round about ten confederate towns, in the neighborhood of 
the river Hieromiax: c, Auranitis, eastward to Alsada- 
mus Mons: c?, Trachonitis to the JST. W. of that ridge : 
e, Ituraeain the extreme I^., not far from Damascus ; and/, 
Gaulonitis, the mountainous region which descends from 
Hermon to the Sea of Galilee. 

10. The capital of Palestine was Jerusalem, situated 
westward of the head of the Dead Sea : it was advanta- 
geously posted on an elevated platform, which terminated 
precipitously towards the S. and W., but declined gradually 
to the N". This platform was itself divided by slight de- 
pressions into three parts : Zion the most southerly, proba- 
bly the site of the old town of Jebus : Moriah to the S. 
E. and E., on which the temple of Solomon was erected ; 
and A era to the N". Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus, 
A. D. YO, and restored by Hadrian, a. d. 135, with the name 
of Aelia Capitolina, however as a Roman colony, and 
with a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the tem- 
ple of Jehovah. 

11. Of the other noteworthy towns of Judea, we will 
mention, a, Bethlehem, JSeitel-JOahm, the birthplace of our 
Saviour, 6 miles S. of Jerusalem, which the Mohammedans 
call EJrKuds: h, Hebron, El-Khuleel, in the hill country 
farther S.: <?, Jericho, Er-Riha, in the valley of the Jor- 

table-land out of wMcli these hills rise ? 9. What were the divisions of Palestine 
in the time of our Saviour, where were they, and what subdivisions were there ? 10. 
What and where was the capital of Palestine, how situated, the platform on which 
it stood was how divided, when and by whom destroyed, and by whom and when 
restored ? 11. What other noteworthy towns in Judaea, and where situated ? 



ASIA MAJOR. 303 

dan: c?, Gaza, Ghiizzeh^ near the southern frontier: e, 
Azotus or Ashdod, JEsdood^ in the plain of Sephela : j'^, 
Joppa, Jaffa, the sea-port of Jerusalem, to the N. "W. of 
it: and ^, Caesarea, formerly Stratonis Turris, now 
Kaisariyeh^ the later capital under the Romans, Herod the 
Great having raised it from a small village to be a sea-port 
town of consequence. 

12. The capital of Samaria was a town of the same 
name, in the centre of the district, originally erected by 
Orari, but very much enlarged by Herod, who changed its 
name to Sebaste: the ruins are called Sehicstieh. IlTea- 
polis, the Sichem orSychar of Scripture, now Nahlous^ 
lay somewhat to the S., between Ebal and Gerizim, on the 
latter of which the temple of the Samaritans stood. 

13. The chief towns of Galilaea were, a, Tiberias, 
Tubariyeh^ the capital, on the western shore of the lake, 
erected by Herod Antipas, and named after Tiberias: ^, 
Sepphoris, or Diocaesarea, 8efurieh,to the westward, 
also enlarged by Antipas: c, Capernaum, on the site of 
the present Tell Hum^ on the western shore of the lake, 
with Bethsaida, ruins in Jaulan^ a little to the S. of it; 
and J, ISTazareth, EnNasirah^ to the S. of Sepphoris. 

14. In Peraea were, a, Caesarea Philip pi, or Pa- 
neas , JBanias^ at the S. foot of Mt. Hermon, on the Jordan, 
the residence of Philip the Tetrarch, its founder: 5, Ga- 
dara, JJm-Keis^ one of the ten that formed the Decapo- 
lis, a little S. of the Hieromiax, Yarmuk : c. Pell a, JEl- 
JBujeh^ the southernmost of the ten cities of the Decapolis, 
in the valley of the Jordan, whither the disciples took re- 
fuge on the destruction of Jerusalem : d^ Ramoth Gilea d; 
Jdaad^ at the foot of Mt. GUead: 6, Rabbath-Ammon, 
or Philadelphia, Ammun^ the ancient capital of the 
Ammonites; and/", Rabbath-Moab, or Ar of Moab, 
now Rdbba^ the capital of the Moabites, on the Arnon. 

15. Besides the Jordan, the streams of Palaestina were 
small: they were, 1. East of the Jordan, a, the Hi ero max 
or Hieromiax, Yarmouk: 5, the Jaboch or Jabbok, 
Nahr ZurJca : c, the Arnon, Wady Jfo;75, which empties 
into the Dead Sea. 2. Emptying into the Mediterranean, 
the Kison, according to the Septuagint Kischon, into the 

12. What was the capital of Samaria, and -what other town was there, noted for 
what ? 13. What and where were the chief towns of G-alilaea ? 14. What towna 
were in Peraea, and where ? 15. What streams hesides the Jordan may he men- 
tioned? 



804 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

bay of Ptolemais or Acre. 3. Emptying into the Sea of 
Tiberias, N. of Capernaum, Kison Minor ; and 4. Empty- 
ing into the Dead Sea from the "W*., the Torrens Kidron, 
rising near Bethphage, at the Mount of Olives, close by 
Jerusalem. 

l^.—^lrabia,, 

1. Arabia is the large peninsula which stretches south- 
wards from the Euphrates and the borders of Palaestina to 
the Erythraeum Mare (Gulf of JBah-el-Mandeh and In- 
dian Ocean) on the S. E., bounded on the W. by the Sinus 
Arabicus or Mare E-ubrum, Hed Sea^ and on the E. 
by the Sinus Persicus, jPema^ Gulf The name is oc- 
casionally extended beyond the limits here assigned, so as 
to include the sandy plain of Mesopotamia, and the part of 
Egypt between the Red Sea and the eastern margin of the 
Nile Yalley. 

2. Arabia consists of an immense table-land, surrounded 
on all sides by a strip of plain parallel to the sea. The 
mountain-belt which bounds the plain varies considerably 
in height and breadth : it seems to widen gradually towards 
the S. ; and as it receives a more abundant supply of water 
than either the plain or the interior, it has ever been the 
most fertile and habitable part of the country. The Sinus 
Arabicus forks off at its northern extremity into two 
long arms, called Sinus Aelanitis (the more eastern) 
and Sinus Heroopolites : between them lies the rocky 
peninsula, which contauis the celebrated heights of Sinai 
and Horeb. A barren waste succeeds to the ^N". of it, 
along the shores of the Mediterranean, separated on the E. 
from the main peninsula by a peculiar rocky valley, which 
runs northward from the Aelanitic arm of the Red Sea to 
the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. 

3. Arabia was divided into three districts, viz. : Pe- 
traea, the rocky region about the arms of the Red Sea; 
Felix, the fruitful^ the southern part of the peninsula 
from the heads of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea ; and 
Desert a, the barren^ the remaining portion, to the N., 
which gradually contracts with the convergence of the 
Euphrates towards the Mediterranean. It would be a 

1. What and where and how hounded is Arabia? 2. Of what does Arabia 
consist, and what was the general aspect of its surface, what gulfs on its N. W, 
part, with what famous mountains between them ? 3. "What were the divisions of 



ASIA MAJOE. 305 

mistake to suppose that the whole of Arabia Felix cor- 
responds with its name : the interior is a parched, burning 
desert : the hill country towards the S., comprising the 
province of Yemen, and the sea-coasts, with which the an- 
cients were naturally best acquainted, gave origin to the 
name. These yielded frankincense and myrrh, together with 
other spices and fruits, which were held in great esteem by 
all the civilized nations of antiquity : gold and precious 
stones are also mentioned among the productions of Ara- 
bia, but these were probably imported from India, and 
merely exchanged at the Arabian ports for European 
merchandise. 

4. Petraea is chiefly interesting to us from the nu- 
merous notices of it in Holy Scripture, particularly in ref- 
erence to the forty years' wandering of the IsraeHtes. At 
that era the Amalekites occupied the plain between the 
Mediterranean and the Ked Sea: the Midianites, the 
peninsula of Sinai: the Edomites, the rugged country 
from the Aelanitic Gulf, {gulf of Akaba,) to the border of 
Palestine; and the Moabites, the eastern shores of the 
Dead Sea. These names disappear from history, and in a 
later age we find all the tribes described under the generic 
name of Nabataei. 

6. The capital of Petraea, (N. W. part of JEJl-SeJaz,) 
was Petra, the Selah of Scripture, now Wady-Mousa, 
situated in the rocky valley already referred to. The 
houses and temr)les were hewn out of the solid rock. It 
was probably a place of considerable traffic for the caravans 
from Persia, There were two ports on the Aelanitic Gulf, 
Elath or Aelana, on the eastern, and Berenice or 
Eziongeber, on the western shore. The former was the 
station of Solomon's fleet. 

6. Arabia Felix was occupied by a variety of tribes, of 
which the Sabaei, in Yemen, (which corresponds with the 
Sheba of Scripture,) were the best known. The extreme _ 
southern angle was occupied by the Homeritae, whose 
town of A dan a, Aden, is most probably the Ophir 
whither Solomon's fleet traded, that being an emporium 
for Indian merchandise. The Gerrhaei, on the Persian 
Gulf, carried on an extensive traffic from the port of 

Arabia, where were they, and what was their character ? 4. What makes Pe- 
traea specially interesting, by what nations inhabited? 5. What was the capital 
of Petraea, where, how constructed, what two ports, and where? 6. By whom 
was Felix occupied, with what town, and what commercial tribe was on the Per- 



806 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Gerrha, Katiff^ across the desert to Petra and Baby- 
lon. 

T. Arabia Deserta has at all times been occupied by 
nomad tribes. In the Old Testament these are called Ke- 
dar: by ancient geographers, Scenitae, i. e. livers in 
tents ^ and by moderns, Bedouins or Bedawins. They 
led a pastoral life under a patriarchal form of government, 
secured by the nature of their country from foreign do- 
minion, and occasionally availuig themselves of this immu- 
nity for purposes of plunder and rapine. 

Bian Gulf? 7. How -was Deserta occupied, how called in the O. T., how "by geog- 
raphers ? What life did these occupants lead ? 



CHAPTER VI. 
AFRICA. 

1^—Jlfricm as known to the •Imeients, 

1. The name Africa was brought into nse by the Ro- 
mans, and was used by the ancients in two senses : it 
applied originally to the first Roman province in that con- 
tinent, about the shores of the Syrtis Minor, {Gulf of 
Kabes .*) it was that portion of N". Africa which constituted 
the territory of Carthage, and which the Romans erected 
into a province, under the name of Africa Propria : from 
this they gradually extended the name to all their terri- 
tory and to the whole continent. By the Greeks it was 
called Libya, though this also had a double sense, being 
sometimes confined to the coast district W. of Egypt. 

2. The general boundaries of Africa have been already 
noticed. The greatest geographers who Hved before Ptol- 
emy, namely, Eratosthenes, (born 276 b. c.,) and Strabo, 
(born about 54 b. c.,) had accepted the tradition that Africa 
was circumnavigable. The shape of the continent they 
conceived to be that of a right-angled triangle, having for 
its hypothenuse a line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules 
to the S. of the Red Sea ; and as to its extent, they did not 
suppose it to reach nearly so far as the Equator. Ptolemy, 
(date of birth unknown: known to have been living 
139 A. D. and 161 A. d.,) supposed the "W. coast to stretch 
K. and S. from the Pillars of Hercules, and he gave the con- 
tinent an indefinite extent towards the S. We shall here 
mark the general features of the continent as known to the 
ancients. 

3. The S. coast of the Mediterranean is far more reg- 
ular than the northern : there are no peninsulas, and but 

1, Who brought the name Africa into use, and how was it applied ? How did 
the Greeks call the continent? 2. What notion had Eratosthenes, Strabo, and 
Ptolemy of Africa ? 3. What were the general features of the continent as known 



308 AJJCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

few promontories or islands. There is, however, one great 
deviation from its direction, caused by the southward ad- 
vance of the great bay, the inmost angles of which were 
named Syrtis Major, G. of Sidra, and Syrtis Minor, 
G. of JSJidbs or Kdbes. The character of this coast dif- 
fers very much : generally speaking the eastern half, as far 
as the angle of the Syrtis Minor, resembles the desert of 
the interior, being flat, dry, and sandy : the western half, 
on the contrary, is broken up by hills and well watered, 
and presents a broad belt of habitable and remarkably 
fertile country. 

4. The great chain ofAtlas Mons, still called Mount 
Atlas^ commences on the western shore, and runs towards 
the '^. E. gradually converging towards the Mediterra- 
nean, and meeting it in the neighborhood of the lesser Syr- 
tis ; it formed a mighty barrier between the Roman prov- 
inces and the great Desert of Sahara, and prevented 
all communication in that direction. 

5. The western coast had been explored as far as the 
Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Guinea^ b ut no regular t r affi o 
was kept up beyond the limits of Mauritania, or Mau- 
ritania ; the eastern coast, to a somewhat more southerly 
point, PromontoriumPrasum, probably Cape Delgado, 
in 10i-° S. lat. ; but this also was far beyond the limits of 
ordinary navigation. The interior was known by report 
only : no doubt the traffic was carried on as regularly in 
ancient as in modern times by caravans, and the Greek and 
Phoenician merchants on the coast had many opportunities 
of obtaining information from the native traders. 

The Oases which skirt the edge of the Desert at a short 
distance from the Mediterranean were well known to He- 
rodotus: these were, a, Oasis Major, the Greater 
Oasis, Wah-el-Kliargeh, W. of Thebes, described by 
Strabo as seven days' journey W. of Abydos: h. Oasis 
Minor, the Lesser Oasis ^ Wah-el-JBahryeh or Wah-el-Beh- 
nesa^ a good day's journey from the S. W. end of Lake 
Moeris : c. Oasis Ammon, Hammon, Ammonium, 
Hammonis Oraculum, called by the Arabs in the mid- 
dle ages Santariah, and now Siwah ; here stood the tem- 
ple of Jupiter Ammon, which was visited by Alexander : 
d, O. Angela, Aujilah, S. E. of the Syrtis Major: e, 

to the ancients 1 4. What great chain of mountains runs from the W. shores tow- 
ards the N. E. ? 5. What was known of the western, what of the eastern coast, . 
and what of the interior ? 6. What oases were known to Herodotus ? 7. How was 



AlFEICA. 809 

Phazania, Mzzan, inhabited by the Garamantes; and 
others more to the W. not easily identified. 

7. Gaetillia was the name given to the interior of K. 
Africa, S. of Mauritania, iN'umidia, and the region border- 
ing on the Syrtes, reaching to the Atlantic Ocean on the "W". 
and of very indefinite extent towards the E. and S. The 
people included under the name Gaetuli, in its widest sense, 
were the inhabitants of the region between the countries 
just mentioned and the Great Desert, and also in the Oases 
of the latter, and nearly as far S. as the river Niger. 
They were a great nomad race, including several tribes, 
the chief of whom were the Autololes and Pharusii, 
on the W. coast, the Darae or Gaetuli-Darae, in the 
steppes of the Great Atlas, and the Melanogaetuli, a 
black race resulting from the intermixture of the Gaetuli 
with their southern neighbors, the Mgritae. 

8. We have some indefinite accounts of a great inland 
river, the Gir, (which may very possibly be the Nz^er, 
but difierent authorities identify it with other rivers of 
modern geography,) with some towns upon it : also of some 
lakes m the same region, named Nigritis and Nuba, 
perhaps X. Debo, and L, Tchad. 

9. The only portion of the continent with which the 
ancients had any full acquaintance was the northern coast, 
which may be divided into the following districts : Aegyp- 
tus, Marmarica, Cyrenaica, Syrtica, Africa Propria, Numi- 
dia, and Mauritania. 



^.—Mgyptms and MtMopla. 

1. — ^.ffigyptus, Egypt is most correctly defined to be 
that part of the basin of the Nile, which lies below the first 
Cataract. According to the extent usually assigned to the 
country, it was bounded on the N. by the Mare Internum, 
on the E. by Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, and the Sinus 
Arabicus, on the S. by Aethiopia, and on the W. by the 
great Libyan Desert. It consists of a long single valley 
about 500 miles long, and of an average width of 9 miles, 
bounded by low ranges of hills, the eastern named Mons 
Arabicus, the western Mons Libycus. 

the interior of N. Africa called, and by what tribes was it inhabited ? 8. We find 
indefinite accounts of what river and lakes in the interior ? 9. Into what districts 
jnay the portion of Africa thoroughly known to the ancients be divided? 

1. How was Egypt bounded, and of what does it consist ? 2. What lay and lies 



810 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

2. Between these is the bed of the river Nilus, Kile^ 
the most remarkable feature in the map of Egypt .* it flows 
in an unbroken stream from the border of Aethiopia to the 
head of the Delta : higher nj) it receives a tributary on its 
right bank, the Astaboras, Aibarah or 5^ca2sa, after 
which the main stream was called Astapus, Ahai : it again 
divides into two branches, the eastern of which, the Blue^ 
!N'ile, Sahr-elrAzreJc, has its rise in the mountains of 
Abyssinia, the western, the White ^Rile, Bahr-et-Abiad^ 
in a more southern range named Lunae Montes : [so, at 
least, the ancients believed : the existence of these moun- 
tains is neither proved nor disproved.] In its lower course 
it has formed a considerable delta, and, as is usual in such 
cases, the divided streams have varied at different times : 
there were anciently seven channels, the most important of 
which were the outside arms, the Pelusiac in the E., and 
the Canopic in the W. To the valley and Delta must be 
added the country round the great natural lake Moeris, 
Birhet-el-Keroun^ connected with the valley by a break in 
the western range of hills. 

3. The whole district thus described is periodically laid 
under water by the overflowing of the Kile, from April to 
October. The immense quantities of alluvial deposit 
brought down by the Kile had a double effect : they con- 
stantly increased the Delta, and served as a fertilizing ma- 
nure for the upper country, over which they were spread 
by those annual overflowings ; and thus Egypt was in a 
twofold sense the " gift of the Kile." 

4. There are several remarkable lakes in Egypt, con- 
nected either with the Kile or the western arm of the Red 
Sea. Of the former we may mention the one already 
named above, Moeris Lac us, Birket-el-Keroun^ which 
was used for the reception and subsequent distribution of 
a part of the overflow of the Kile ; and the Kitriae or 
Nitrariae, Birket-el-J)uarah^ the celebrated Natron Lakes ^ 
in a valley on the S. W. margin of the Delta, which valley 
appears to have been an ancient bed of the Kile : of the 
latter, the Amarus Lacus or Bitter Lake, which formed 
a connecting link between the Kile and the Red Sea, at its 
northernmost extremities ; a canal was constructed by 
which the line of communication was completed : this canal 



■between these ranges of hills, and what rivers are connected with the main 
stream ? 3. What eftecta had the alluvial deposits of the Nile ? 4. What lakes 






AFRICA. 311 

was finished by Ptolemy Philadelplms, and subsequently 
cleared by Trajan of the sand which had choked it up. 

5. Egypt was divided by the Greeks into two portions, 
the Delta or Lower Egypt^ now El Bahari or El Kebi% 
andThebais, or Tipper Egyp% Said: to these a central 
division was afterwards added, named Heptanomis, or 
Middle Egyp% Meer Yostani. The land was further sub- 
divided in 36 nomes or governments : the number, how- 
ever, is variously stated: Heptanomis derived its name 
from its containing seven such subdivisions. 

6. The chief cities were : a, Alexandria, Arabic .Zs^aw- 
deria^ founded by Alexander the Great, b, c. 332, at the Ca- 
nopic mouth of the Nile, the chief port and the royal resi- 
dence of the Ptolemies, and still a very important commer- 
cial town: 5, Naucratis, the ruins at Sa-el-JECajar^ the 
port conceded to the Greeks by Amasis, on the Canopic 
channel: c, Arsinoe, at the head of the Sinus Heroopo- 
lites; and <?, another town of the same name, otherwise 
called Crocodilopolis, in the Heptanomis, on Lake 
Moeris, near which was the celebrated Labyrinth: 6, He- 
liopolis, in the Old Testament On or Bethschemesh, 
on the E. side of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, a little 
below the apex of the Delta, the seat of a famous temple 
of the Sun :/*, Pelusium, the Sin of Scripture, on the E. 
side of the easternmost mouth of the Nile, a strongly forti- 
fied town : ^, Memphis, in the O. T. Noph, above the 
head ' of the Delta, the capital of Egypt after the fall of 
Thebes, near which stand the far-famed pyramids : A, 
Thebae, afterwards Diospolis Magna, in Scripture No 
orNoAmmon, the ancient capital, of immense size and 
magnificence, and % Syene, now Assouan, in ruins, on the 
southern border, just below the first Cataract, well known 
as the spot through which, as it lay just under the tropic 
of Cancer, ancient geographers drew their chief parallel 
of latitude. The Land of Goshen lay eastward of the 
Delta, between Lacus Amarus and the Mediterranean. 

7. Egypt possessed two ports on the Sinus Arabicus or 
Red Sea, Myos Hormos, and Berenice, on the Sinus 
Immundus, now Foul Bay, from each of which there was a 
route to Copt OS, on the Nile, below Thebae. 

2. .SIthiopia. 8. Aethiopia, the Cush of Scripture, 

■were in Egypt ? 5. What were the diviflions of Egypt? 6. What were the chief 
towns, severally noted for what ? 7. "What ports had Egypt on the Red Sea ? 
8. How was Aethiopia bounded, what did it include, its nanae whence derived ? 



312 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

was bounded on the 'N. by Egypt, on the E. by the Sinus 
Arabicus, on the W. by the Desert, on the S. the boundary, 
in about 10° E". lat., was undefined. It includes Nubia, 
Abyssinia^ Sennaar^ and ICordofan. The name of the peo- 
ple inhabiting it is said to have been derived from their 
8un-huTnt complexion^ and compounded of at^o) and ^^. The 
subdivisions of the Nile have been already noticed : the 
Cataracts or rapids in the course of the river occur in this 
country, near the border of Egypt. The southern district 
is very mountainous. 

9. Aethiopia includes the following districts : «?, Dode- 
caschoenus, or Aethiopia Aegypti, on the border of 
Egypt, to which it was attached by the Romans : it re- 
ceived the first name from its being twelve schoeni (a 
measure of land in Egypt, consisting of 60 stadia according 
to some, of 30 according to Hero Geometra) in length 
along the course of the Mle : ^, Meroe, the country sur- 
rounding the Mle at its junction with the Astaboras ; the 
insulated district, inclosed by these two rivers, and almost 
an island, was called the Island ; and c, RegnumAxomi- 
tarum, the mountainous region in which the sources of 
the Blue Nile are found. Both the two last were at dif- 
ferent eras powerful independent states : Meroe was gov- 
erned by a hierarchy or college of the priests who served at 
the temples of Ammon and Osiris ; there was, indeed, a sov- 
ereign, but wholly under their power : Candace, mentioned 
in the New Testament, was one of the queens of this country. 

10. The capital, Meroe, stood on the Nile: it was the 
centre of an extensive commerce between the interior of 
Africa and Egypt. Auxume or Axum e rose to importance 
after the decay of Meroe in the 2d century a. d., and became 
the capital of a powerful kingdom of the same name : it was 
situated near the sources of the Astaboras, and was a great 
market for ivory. The chief port of Aethiopia was Adule 
or Adulis, on an inlet or bay of the Arabicus Sinus, called 
Adulitanus Sinus, now Anviesley Bay. 

^.—Jflmrmurie^y Cyremmiea^ and Syrticu. 

1. Marmarica was a portion of the northern coast ad- 
jacent to Egypt on the E., and Cyrenaica on the W. : it is 

9. Grive a succinct account of the districts into wliicli Aethiopia was divided. 10. 
Where was the capital, and what other towns were there ? 

1. What was Marmarica, what was the character of the country, what town 



AFRICA. 313 

now divided between Egypt and Tripoli, It is a dry and 
uncultivated district : the coast is skirted by a range of 
low hills, which in two spots open towards the interior in 
steep valleys, which were designated Catabathmus-Major 
and Minor. The only town of interest was Paraetonium 
or Ammonia. The tribes who inhabited it in the days of 
Herodotus were the Adyrmachidaeand the Giligam- 
mae on the coast; and the ITasam ones andAugilaein 
the interior. 

2. Cyrenaica was contiguous to Marmarica on the E. 
and to Syrtica on the W". ; it lay in the projecting curva- 
ture of the coast which bounds the Syrtis Major : it is now 
called Dernah or Jehel-AJchdar, Its position was favor- 
able, being the nearest point to Greece, and equidistant 
from Egypt and Carthage ; and from its position, forma- 
tion, climate, and soil, this region is perhaps one of the most 
delightful on the surface of the globe. 

3. The chief city was the Greek colony of Cyrene, of 
which very large ruins are to be seen at Ghrennah^ the 
present name of the site, founded 631 b. c. by settlers from 
Thera : it was situated on a rising ground, 1,800 feet above 
the sea, 10 miles from the coast, in one of the finest situa- 
tions in the world, and was large and highly ornamented. 
It was the head of a flourishing state at first monarchical, 
afterwards republican, consisting of five towns, which 
lasted until the time of Ptolemy Soter, b. c. 321. 

4. The other towns were : a, Apollonia, now Marza 
Susa, the port of Cyrene : it was the birthplace of Era- 
tosthenes: bj Ptolemais, the ruins of which are called 
Tolmeita or Tolometa^ at first only the port of Barca, 
which was, however, so entirely eclipsed by Ptolemais that, 
under the E-omana, even the name of Barca was transferred 
to the latter city : c, Arsinoe, or Tauchira, more to the 
S. ; and J, Berenice, formerly Hesperis, the ruins uow 
called JBen Ghazi^ the fabled site of the Gardens of the 
Hesperides. These formed the Cyrenaie Pentapolis. 
In the interior, 12i- miles from the sea, was Barca or 
Barce, the ruins called Merjeh^ a colony from, and a rival 
of, Cyrene. In 510 b. c. it was taken by the Persians, who 
removed most of its inhabitants to Bactria, and under the 
Ptolemies its ruin was completed by the erection of its port 

of note was there, and what trihes inhabited it ? 2. Where was Cyrenaica, and what 
made its position favorable? 3. What was the chief city of Cyrenaica, how 
situated, and the head of what ? 4. What were the other four towns, and what 
14 



314 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHT. 

into a new city, which was named Ptolemais, (see above,) 
and which took the place of Barca as one of the cities of 
the Pentapolis. Herodotus mentions the native tribes as 
the Asbystae in the E., and Auchisae in the W. 

5. SyrticaRegio, now the W. part of Tripoli^ was a 
poor, barren district, sand interspersed with salt marshes, 
along the shores of the sea between the Syrtis Major and 
the Syrtis Minor, which belonged at different times to the 
Cyrenians and to the Carthaginians, and was incorporated 
in the province of Africa by the Romans, along with the 
other possessions of Carthage. The native tribes men- 
tioned by Herodotus were the Lotophagi, Macae, 
Psylli, and Nasamones. The only river to be noticed 
is the small Cinyps, the banks of which were remarkably 
fertile. There were three confederate towns, (whence the 
name Tripolis,) viz.: Leptis Magna or Neapolis, 
founded by Sidonians, and under the Romans a place of 
great trade: Oea, probably on the site of Tripoli ; and 
Abrotonum, also called Sabrata, more to the W. These 
three cities formed the African Tripolis. 

1. Africa Propria or Provincia,or simply Africa, 
was the name under which the Romans, after the 3d 
Punic war, b. c. 146, erected into a province the whole of 
the former territory of Carthage. It was bounded on the 
E. by the Mare Internum, the Syrtis Minor, and the river 
Triton which separated it from Syrtica : on the W. by the 
river Tusca which separated it from Numidia : on the S. by 
the Desert and Tritonis or Tritonitis Palus ; and on the N". 
by the Mediterranean. 

2. It differs much in character from the eastern coun- 
tries of iJ^orth Africa, being hilly, well watered, and emi- 
nently fertile. The hills are offsets from the great Atlas 
range. The chief river is the Bagradas, Mejerdah, 
which flows towards the E". E., reaching the sea near 
IJtica. There are also several lakes, particularly the large 
salt Palus or Lacus Tritonis or Tritonitis or Palla- 
dis, now MSibJcah, which bounds the Desert, and which 



important place was in the interior? 5. What and where was Sjrrtica, what na« 
tive tribes are mentioned, and what river and what town are to be noticed ? 

1. What and how bounded was Africa Propria? 2. What is the nature 



ATKIOA. 315 

was formerly connected with the sea by a river named 
Triton. 

3. The sea-coast is irregular : on the K. coast we meet 
with the Hermaeum Promontorium, or in Latin Mer- 
curii Prom., now C«joe jBo^, the nearest point to Europe, 
and Promontorium Pulchrum or Apollinis Prom., 
now C, Farina^ between which lies the Sinus Cartha- 
giniensis, Gulf of Tunis. 

4. Africa Propria was in early times under the domin- 
ion of Carthago. This city, long the capital of Africa, 
was founded 853 b. c, (some say 876,) by Phoenicians, and 
existed until its overthrow by Scipio, b. c. 146. It stood 
on a bay of the N". coast, the Sinus Carthaginiensis, near 
the present Tunis^ its sides being flanked by lagoons, one 
of which served as its port. 

6. When the Romans had, after the destruction of Car- 
thage, constituted its territoryinto a province, they divided 
it into two parts, Byzacena or Byzacium in the S., and 
Zeugisor Zeugitana in theK. The chief cities were : a, 
Thapsus, on the E. coast, where Caesar finally defeated the 
Pompeian army under Scipio and Juba, b. c. 46 : 5, Adru- 
metum or Hadrumetum, founded by the Phoenicians, 
and rendered a place of commercial importance by the 
Romans; c, Tysdrus, in the interior, S. of Hadrumetum : 
d^ TJtica, on the N". coast, at the commencement of the 
Bay of Carthage, raised by the Romans to be the capital 
of the whole province, and historically famous for the death 
of Cato, and as the resort of the republican faction : and 
lastly. Hippo Diarrhytus or Zarytus, a port a httle to 
the westward. 

1. Kumidia was bounded on the E. by Africa Propria 
and the Tusca River, on the "W". by Mauretania and the river 
Ampsaga, on the N. by the Mediterranean, and on the S. 
by Gaetulia, and corresponds with the E. part of Algeria. 
It derived its name from the nomad (No/x,a8cs) tribes who 
frequented it. 

of the country, and what rivers and lakes are there ? 3. What was the char- 
acter of the coast, and what promontories were on it ? 4. Africa Propria was 
long under whose dominion, being what, founded by whom, and when and where ? 
5. When the Romans had made the territory a province, how did they divide it, 
and what and where were the chief cities ? 

1. How was Numidia bounded, eorresponding with what ! Whence its name f 



316 ANCIENT GEOaEAPHY. 

2. The chief tribe was the M assy lii, a brave and active 
race, living under a monarchical form of government : they 
were conquered by the Romans, b. c. 46, and their terri- 
tory formed into the province of Numidia. 

3. The interior of the country is mountainous, the 
highest range being known by the name of Mons 
Thambes. The chief rivers are the Rubricatus or 
Ubus, now Seibous, SiTid the Amp sag a, Wad-el- KaUr ; 
the former drains the central district, the latter is on the 
border of Mauretania. 

4. The chief towns on the coast were the following two 
sea-ports: Hippo Regius, the ruins of which are near 
Bondh^ W. of the mouth of the Rubricatus, once a royal 
residence, and afterwards celebrated as the bishopric of 
St. Augustine, and Rusicada; and in the interior, Zama 
Regia, a strongly fortified city on the border of Africa 
Propria, and sometimes included in it, the residence of 
Juba, and the scene of an important battle between Han- 
nibal and Scipio, b. c. 202, when the 2d Punic war 
ended : Sic ca Veneria, probably Al Keff^ on a hill near 
the Bagradus; and Cirta, afterwards Constantina, the 
ruins called Gonstantineh^ in the W. part of the province, 
the capital of the Numidian kings, and from its central 
position, the most important town under the Romans also. 

6. — JWamretamia, 

1. Mauretania was bounded on the E. by ISTumidia, on 
the S. by Gaetulia, on the N". by the Mediterranean, and on 
the W. by the Atlantic : it corresponds with western Alge- 
ria and a great portion of Morocco. 

2. The Romans first became acquainted with it in the 
Jugurthine war, but it was not incorporated in the em- 
pire until the time of Claudius : it was then divided into 
two provinces, Caesariensis in the E., and Tingitana in the 
W., separated by the river Multicha. 

3. There are two ranges named Atlas in this prov- 
ince: Atlas Major, also called Dyrin, in the S., and a 
lesser range, A. Minor, along the coast in the 'H. ; the 

2. What was the chief tribe, what their character and government, they were con- 
quered by whom, and what was done with their territory ? 3. What was the 
character of the coimtry, and what are the chief rivers ? 4. What were the chief 
towns, and where ? Severally how noted ? 

1. How was Mauretania bounded, and with what does it correspond ? 2. When 
did the Romans become acquainted with it, when incorporate it in the empire, and 



I 



-AFRICA. B17 

termination of the latter was the lofty rock of Abyla or 
Abila Mons or Columna, Jebel Zatout, already noticed 
as one of the Columnae Herculis. 

4. The chief rivers were, the Chinalaph, Shelliff^m 
Caesariensis ; the Muliicha, Malva, or Malochath, 
Mulwia^ which formed the boundary between the prov- 
inces ; and the Subur, Sehou^ jSubu, or Cubu, flowing 
into the Atlantic. The general name of the inhabitants 
was Mauri, Moors, and the most important tribe was the 
Massaesylii, between the Muluchaand the Chinalaph. 

5. The chief towns were : «, Caesar e a, on the coast, 
formerly a Phoenician station with the name Jol, after- 
wards the residence of Bocchus and of Juba II., and finally 
made the capital of the province by Claudius: 5, C ar- 
te nn a, a considerable port, W. of the Chinalaph: c, 
Sitifi, JSetify in the interior and on the border of Numi- 
dia: d, Tingis, Tangier, the capital of Tingitana, just 
outside the Fretum Gaditanum, and on the Atlantic Ocean : 
e, the Phoenician colonies of Lix, Lixa, or Lixus, and 
Thymiaterium, founded by Hanno. 

how divide it ? 3. What mountains were in Mauretania ? 4. What were the chief 
rivers, what the name of the inhabitants and of the most important tribe? 5. 
What and where were the chief towns ? 



THE END* 



INDEX 



Abae, 40. 
Abdera, 256. 
Abella, 148. 
Abila, 29T. 
Abila, mons, 317. 
Abilene, 297. 
Abnoba, mons, 274. 
Aboniticbos, 220, 
Abrotonum, 314. 
Abus, mons, 281. 
Abydos, 196. 
Abyla, mons, 817. 
Acamas, prom., 253. 
Acampsis, fl., 221. 
Acarnania, 26. 
Acesines, fl., 293. 
Acesta, 181. 
Achaia, 67. 
Acbarnae, 59. 
Achelous, fl., 13, 17. 
Acheron, fl., 18. 
Acberontia, 154. 
Acherusia, lac, 12. 
Acra, mons, 302. 
Acritas, prom., 75. 
Acroceraunium, prom., 8. 
Acte, 260. 
Actium, 9. 
Adana, 305. 
Addua, fl., 95. 
Adonis, fl., 298. 
Adramyttium, 196. 
Adramyttenus sinus, 193. 
Adrana, fl., 275. 
Adria, 109. 
Adrianopolis, 257. 
Adriaticum mare, 5, 101. 
Adrumetum, 315. 
Adule vel Adulis portus, 

312. 
Adulitanns sinus, 312. 
Adyrmacbidae, 313. 
Aea, 279. 
Aegae, 61. 

Aegaeum mare, 5, 9. 
Aegaleus, mons, 56. 
Aegates, ins., 187. 
Aegesta, 181. 
Aegina, ins.. 82. 
Aegiuin, GS. 



Aegos-Potamos, 257. 

Aegusa, 187. 

Aegyptus, 309. 

Ael'ana, 305. 

Aelanitis sinus, 304. 

Aelia Capitolina, 302. 

Aenaria, ins., 170. 

Aenianes, 16. 

Aenos, mons, 256. 

Aeoliae. ins., 187. 

Aeolis, 193. 

Aequi, 92, 128, 134. 

Aesarus, fl., 163. 

Aesepus, fl., 193. 

Aesernia, 150. 

Aetbalia, ins., 169. 

Aethiopes, 309. 

Aethiopia, 309, 311. 

Aegypti, 312. 

Aetna, mons, 171, 172. 

op., 182. 

Aetolia, 31. 

Africa, 307. 

Propria, 314. 

Aganippe, fons, 41. 

Agathyrsi, 278. 

Agrigentum, 178. 

Agyrium, 183. 

Alabanda, 213. 

Alauni, 278. 

Alazonius, fl., 280. 

Alba Pucentia, 124. 

Longa, 133. 

Albania, 279, 280. 

Albanus lacus, 98. ' 

mons, 259. 

Albis, 6, 275. 

Album, prom., 298. 

Albus,271. 

Alcyonium mare, 41. 

Aleria. colonia, 186. 

Alesia,' 268. 

Alex, fl., 163. 

Alexandria, 311. 

Ariana, 288. 

Margiana, 291. 

Oxiana, 291. 

Troas, 195. 

Ultima, 291. 

I Algidus, mons, 132. 
I Allia, fl., 96. 
1 AUifae, 150. 



Alpenus vel Alpeni, 85. 
Alpes, montes, 6, 92. 
r maritimae, 92. 

Cottiae, 92. 103. 

Graiae, 92. 

— — Penninae, 92. 

Lepontiorum, 93. 

Ehaeticae, 93. 

Tridentinae, 93. 

Noricae, 93. 

Carnicae, 93. 

, Juliae, 93. 

! Alpheus, 13, 14, 64. 
Alsadamus, mons, 301. 
Altinum, 110. 
Alysia vel Alyzea, 30. 
Amalekites or Amalecitae, 

305. 
Amanus, mons, 296. 
Amardus, fl., 286. 
Amarus lacus, 310. 
Amasia, 223. 
Amastris, fl. et op., 220. 
Amatbus, 254 
Ambastus, 294. 
Ambracia, 67. 
Ambracius sinus 10. 
Ameria, 120. 
Amisia, fl., 275. 
Amisus, 222. 
Amiternum, 124. 
Ammonia, 313. 
Ammonium vel Ammon, 

Oasis. 308. 
Amnias, fl., 218. 
Ampbipolis, 261. 
Amphissa, 34. 
Amphrysus, fl., 20. 
Ampsanctus, lacus, 99. 
Amyclae, 79, 136. 
Anagnia, 134. 
Ananes, 104. 
Anaphe, Ins., 88. 
Anapus, fl., 172. 
Anas, fl., 263. 
Anazarbus, 235. 
Anchiale, 233. 
Ancona, 121. 
Ancyra, 244. 
Andros, Ins., 87. 
Angitula, fl., 163. 
Angrivarii, 275. 



INDEX. 



319 



Angulns, 125. 
Anio, fl., 96. 
Annibi montes, 294. 
Antandrus, 196. 
Anthedon, 50. 
Anticyra, 24, 37. 
Antilibanus, mons, 296. 
Antiochia Epidaphnes, 29T. 

ad Maeandrum, 213. 

Pisidiae, 229. 

Antirrhium, prom., 9, 83. 
Antissa, 198. 
Antitaurus, mons, 221. 
Antium, 134. 
Anxiir, 135. 
Aornus, 290. 
Aursi, 295. 
Aous, fl., 259. 
ApameaadOrontem, 297. 

Cibotus, 239. 

Apennini montes, 6, 93. 
Aphetae, 23. 
Aphrodisias, 213. 
Apidanus, fl., 17. 
ApoUonia, 67, 202, 313. 
supra Ehyndacum, 

217. 

in Thracia, 256. 

Apollinis, prom., 315. 
Apulia, 91, 151. 
Messapia, 151. 

Peucetia, 151. 

Aquae Solis, 272. 

Sextiae, 267, 268. 

Aquileia, 110. 
xiquinum, 136. 
Aquitania, 267. 
Aquitani, 267. 
Arabia, 304. 

Deserta, 304. 

Felix, 304, 305. , 

Petraea, 304, 305. 

Arabicus sinus, 304. 
Arachosia, 289. 
Aracbotus, fl., 290. 
Aracbthus, fl., 18. 
Aram, 282. 
Ararat, mons, 281. 
Ararus, fl., 258. 
Araxes, fl., 280, 281, 287. 
Arbela, 285. 
Arcadia, 83. 
Ardea, 131. 
Arduenna silva, 266. 
Arelate, 268. 
Aretbusa fons, 176. 
Argentea Kegio, 293. 
Argentoratum, 269. 
Argippaei, 295. 
Argolicus sinus, 10, 11. 
Argolis, 79. 
Argos, 79, 80. 

AmpbilocMcum, 30. 

Aria, 288. 

Lacus, 289. 

Ariaua, 286. 
Aricia, 132. 
Arimaspi, 295. 
Ariminum, 118. 
Arisbe, 196. 



Aristonautae, portus, 68, 
Arius, fl., 288. 
Armenia, 280. 

Minor, 281. 

Arnon, fl., 302, 303. 
Arnus, fl., 96, 112. 
Arocba, fl., 163. 
Arosis, fl., 286. 
Arpi, 153. 
Arpinum, 136. 
Arretium, 115. 
Arsinoe, 253, 311, 313. 
Arsissa, lacus, 281. 
Artanes, fl., 258. 
Artaxata, 281. 
Artemisius, mons, 83. 
Artemisium, prom., 9, 61. 

op., 263. 

Artiscus, fl., 256. 
Arymagdus, fl., 232. 
Ascania, lacus, 228. 
Ascra, 41. 

Asculum Apulum, 153. 

Picenum, 121. 

Asbdod, 303. 
Asia, 189. 

Major, 190. 

Minor, 190,- 191. 

Asinaeus sinus, 10. 
Asine, 11. 
Asopus, fl., 16. 
Aspendus, 231. 
Aspbaltites lacus, 800. 
Assus, 196. 
Assyria, 284. 
Astacus, 217. 
Astaboras, fl., 310. 
Astacenus sinus, 215. 
Atella, 147. 
Aternum, 125. 
Atbenae, 53. 
Atbesis, fl., 98. 
Atbos, mons, 260, 261. 
Atbrys, fl., 258. 
Atlanticus Oceanus, 5. 
Atlas, mons, 308, 316. 
Atra, 283. 
Atrebatii, 271. 
Atropatene, 286. 
Attalia, 230. 
Attica, 52. 
Attium, prom., 1S6. 
Attyda, 241. 
Aturia, 285. 
Aufidus, fl., 9T. 
Augilae, 313.' 
Augusta Praetoria, 104. 

Eauraca, 269. 

Taurinorum, 103. 

Trevirorum, 269. 

Vindelicorum, 276. 

Augustoritum, 268. 
Aulis, 50. 
Anion, 75. 
Auranitis, 302. 
Aure'a Chersonesus, 292, 
293. 

Eegio, 293. 

Aureus Mons, 186. 
Autololes, 809. 



Auxacii montes, 294 
Auximum, 121. 
Avaricum, 267. 
Avernus lacus, 98. 
Axius, fl. 261. 
Axume, 312. 
Azani, 242. 
Azorus, 21. 
Azotus, 803. 



Babylon, 283. 
Babylonia, 283. 
Bactra, 290. 
Bactria, 290, 292. 
Baetica, 263. 
Baetis, fl. 6, 263. 
Bagradas, fl. 214. 
Baiae, 142. 
Baleares, ins., 265. 
Bantia, 154. 

Baratbus vel Batata, 245. 
Barce, 313. 
Barcino, 263. 
Bargylia, 213. 
Barium, 154. 
Barygazenus sinus, 293. 
Basan, mons, 302. 
Bastarnae, 278. 
Batnae, 282, 
Bautisus, fl. 294. 
Bebii montes, 259. 
Bebryces, 214. 
Bedriacum, 106. 
Belgae, 267. 
Belgica, 268. 
Bellas, fl., 282. 
Belisama, aest, 271. 
Belus, fl. 298. 
Benacus lacus, 101. 
Beneventum, 150. 
Berenice, 305, 311, 313. 
Bermius, mons, 261. 
Berrboea, 261. 
Berytus, op. et prom., 298, 
Bessi, 256. 
Betblebem, 302. 
Betbsaida, 303. 
Billaeus, fl., 214. 
Bitbyni, 214. 
Bitbynia, 214. 
Bitbynium, 217. 
Boderia, aest., 271. 
Boeae, 77. 
Boebeis, lacus, 12. 
Boeotia, 40. 
Boeum, 33. 
Boii, 104. 

Bonae Fortunae, Ins., 293. 
Bouonia, 104. 
Borystbenes, fl., 6, 278. 
Bosporus Threicius, 6, 6. 

Cimmerius, 5. 

Bostrenus, fl., 298. 
Bovianum, 150. 
Brauron, 58. 
Brisantes, 271. 
Britannia, 269. 



320 



INDEX. 



Britannia Prima, 270. 

Secunda, 270. 

Barbara, 210. 

Britannicae insulae, 269. 
Britannicus oceanus, 5. 
Brixia, 106. 
Bructeri, 275. 
Brundusium, 155. 
Bruttium, 91, 162. 
Budeni, 278. 
Bumadus, fl., 285. 
Buprasium, 71. 
Burdigala, 267. 
Burscundiones, 275. 
Busmasdis, 249. 
Butrotus, 164. 
Byblus, prom, et op., 29 
Byzacium, 315. 
Byzantium, 256. 



Cabalia, 228. 
Cabira, 224. 
Cabolitae. 290. 
Cac'yparis, fl., 173. 
Cadi, 241. 
Cadmeia, 44. 
Cadmus, mons, 238 
Cadyna, 245. 
Caecinus, fl., 164. 
Caenys, prom., 94. 
Caere, 115. 
Caesarea, ins., 269. 

Palaestinae, 303. 

Pliilippi, 303. 

Mauretaniae, 317. 

Caesena, 107. 
Caicus, fl., 193. 
Caieta, 137. 
Calabria, 91. 
Calauria, ins., 82- 
Calbis, fl., 211. 
Cales, 146. 
Callatis, 258. 
Callidromus, mons, 25. 
Callinicum, 283. 
Callinusa, prom., 253. 
Callirrboe, 282. 
Calor, fl., 140. 
Calpe, prom., 262. 

op., 263. 

Calycadnus, fl., 231. 
Calydna, ins., 214. 
Calydon, op., 32. 
Calymna, 213. 
Camalodunum, 272. 
Camarina, 178. 
Camboricum, 272. 
Cambunii monies, 8. 
Cambyses, fl., 280. 
Camirus, 211, 251. 
Campania, 91, 138. 
Campi Laestrygonii, 175, 

176. 
Canae, 245. 
Cane, prom., 193. 
Canelata, 186. 
Canganorum, prom., 271. 



Cannae, 154. 
Cantabri, 264. 
Cantabricum mare, vel 
Cantabricus Oceanus,5, 262. 
Canthi. sinus, 293. 
Cantii,'271. 
Cantium, prom., 271. 
Canusium, 154. 
Capernaum, 303, 
Caphareus, prom., 64. 
Cappadocia, 246. 
Capraria, ins., 169, 187. 
Capria, 231. 
Capreae, ins , 170. 
Caprus, fl., 284. 
Capua, 147. 
Caralis, 185. 

Caralitanum prom., 184. 
Caralitis, vel Caralius 

lacus, 228. 
Carallia, 249. 
Carambacis, fl., 6. 
Carchemish, 282. 
Carcines, fl., 163. 
Carduchi, 285. 
Caria, 210. 
Carmana, 287. 
Carmania, 2S7. 
Carmelus, mons, 301. 
Carni, 109. 
Carnuntum, 277. 
Carpates, mons, 6, 258. 
Carpathus, ins., 88. 
Carrhae, 282. 
Carteia, 263. 
Car ten na, 317. 
Carthago, 315. 

Nova, 263, 264. 

Cartbaginensis sinus, 315. 
Carura, 241, 290. 
Caryanda, 213. 
Carystus, 63. 
Casilinum, 146. 
Caspii monies, 281. 
Caspium mare, 279. 
Caspius, mons, 286. 
Cassiope, 18. 
Cassiterides, ins., 270. 
Castabala, 247, 248. 
Castalia, fons, 39. 
Catana, 175. 
Cataonia, 247. 
Catarrhactes, fl., 228, 229. 
Cattigara, 294. 
CatuA^ellauni, 271. 
Caucasiae, Pylae, 280. 
Caucasus, mons, 279, 280. 
Caucones, 214. 
Caudini, 149. 
Caudium, 150. 
Caulon, 165. 
Caunus, 213. 
Cayster, fl., 201. 
Cebenna, mons, 266. 
Celaenae, 239. 
Celtae, 267. 
Celtiberi, 264. 
Celtici, 264. 
Cencbreae, 65. 
Cenimagni, 271. 



Cenomanni, 104. 
Centumcellae, 114. 
Centurinum, 186. 
Centuripae, 183. 
Ceos, ins., 85. 
Cephallenia, ins., 27, 28. 
Cephissus, fl., 13, 15. 
Cepbissus Atticus, fl., 15. 
Ceramicus sinus, 210. 
Ceraunii montes, 8. 
Cercine, mons, 261. 
Ceretapa, 241. 
Cestrus, fl., 228, 229. 
Cevenna, mons, 26(a 
Chaboras, fl., 282. 
Cbaeronea, 47. 
Chalcedon, 216. 
Cbalcidice, 260. 
Chalcis, 62. 
Cbaldaea, 283. 
Chains, fl., 296. 
Chalybes, 221, 223. 
Chaones, 18. 
ChaonJa, 18. 
Charchemish, 232. 
Charrae, 282. 
Chatoras, fl., 282. 
Chatti, 275. 
Chauci, 275. 
Chebar, fl., 282. 
Chelonatas, or Clielonites, 

prom., 71. 
Chersonesus, 278. 

Taurica, 278. 

Thraciae, 25T 

Cherusci, 275. 
Chimaera Lyciae, 225. 
Chinalaph, fl., 317. 
Chios, ins., 10, 209. 
Chaser, fl., 279. 
Choaspes,fl., 286, 290. 
Choes, fl., 290. 
Chrysopolis, 217. 
Chrysorrhoas, fl., 29T. 
Chusa, 248. 
Ciambrus, fl., 257. 
Cianus, sinus, 215. 
Cibalis, 277. 
Cibyratis, 228. 
Cilicia, 231. 
Cimbri, 275. 
Cimolus, 86. 
Cinyps, fl., 314. 
Circeii, 135. 
Circeium, prom., 94 
Circesium, 282. 
Cirrha, 36. 
Cirta, 316. 

Cithaeron, mons, 8, 4S. 
Citium, prom., 253. 

op., 254. 

Cius, 217. 
Clanis,fl., 97. 
Clanius, fl., 140. 
Clastidium, 103. 
Clazomenae, 206. 
Cleonae, 69, 79, SO. 
Clibanus, 249. 
Climax, mons, 224. 
Clitunanus, fl., 96. 



INDEX. 



321 



Clota, aest., 271. 

Clunium, 186. 

Clusina palus, vel clusinus 

lacus, 116. 
Clusium, 116. 
Clydae, 213. 
Cnidus, 212, 
Cnossus, 89. 
Cocinthum, prom,, 93. 
Cocusos, 247. 
Codanus sinus, 5, 276. 
Coele-Syria, 296. 
Coenonchorion, 224, 
Colchis, 279, 
Collatia, 133. 
Colonia Agrippina, 269, 
Colophon, 205. 
Colossae, 239. 
Columbarium, prom., 184. 
Columbaria, ins., 169. 
Columnae Herculis, 262. 
Comana Pontica, 224. 

Cappad., 247. 

Comaria, prom,, 293. 
Comum, 105, 
Congussus, 245. 
Conope vel Conopa, op. et 

lacus, 31, 32. 
Consentia, 168. 
Constantinopolis, 256. 
Copae, 48. 

Copais, lacus, 12, 41, 48, 49. 
Cophes, fl., 290. 
Corbeas, 244 
Corcyra, ins;, 18, 67. 
Coracesium, 236. 
Corduba, 264. 
Corfinium, 124. 
Corycium Antrum, 39. 
Corinth ia, 64. 

Corinthiacus sinus, 10, 11. 
Corinthus, 64. 
Corioli, 134. 
Coritani, 271. 
Cornavii, 271. 
Corniculum, 123. 
CornuSj 185, 
Coronaeus sinus, 10. 
Coronea, 45, 
Corsica, ins., 186. 
Cortona, 116. 
Corycus, 236, 
Corydalla, 249, 
Coryphasium, prom., 74. 
Cos, ins., 212. 
Cosa vel Cossa, 114. 
Cottiaris, fl., 294, 
Cotyaeum, 24L 
Cotyora, 223. 
Cranae, ins.; 77. 
Cranii, 29. 

Cranon vel Crannon, 22. 
Crassum, prom., 184. 
Cratais, 163, 
Crathis, mons et fl,, 68. 
Cremera, fl., 97. 
Cremna, 228. 
Cremona, 106. 
Creta, ins., 88. 
Oreticum mare, 10. 

14* 



Crimisa, prom., 93, op., 164, 
Orimisus, fl., 163, 173. 
Crissa, 36. 
Crissaeus sinus, 14. 
Criu-metopon, prom., 88. 
Crocodilopolis, 311. 
Crommyon, prom., 253. 
Cronium mare, 5, 
Crotalus, fl., 163, 
Crotona, 164, 
Crustumerium, 123. 
Ctesiphon, 285. 
Cumae, 141. 
Cumanus sinus, 101. 
Cumerium, prom., 93. 
Cunaxa, 284. 

Cunicularium, prom., 184. 
Cupra, 121, 
Cures, 123, 
Curetes, 26, 
Curias, prom., 253. 
Curium, 254. 
Cush, 311. 
Cutiliae, 124. 
Cyathus, fl., 82. 
Cybistra, 248. 
Cyclades, ins., 9, 85. 
Cydnus, fl., 231. 
Cydonia, 89. 
Cyllene, mons, 9, 64, 83. 

portus, 71. 

Cynoscephalae, 21. 
Cynossema, prom., 210. 
Cynthus, mons, 85. 
Oyparissia, 74. 
Cyparissius sinus, 11. 
Cyprus, ins., 251. 
Cyrenaica, 312, 313. 
Cyrene, 291, 313. 
Cyrnos, ins., 5. 
Cyrus, fl., 280. 
Cythera, ins., 77. 
Cythnos, ins., 85. 
Cytinium, 33. 
Cytorus, 220. 
Cyzicus, 193. 



D 

Dacia, 258. 

Aureliani, 257. 

Dadastana, 244. 
Dades, prom., 253. 
Daedala, 213. 
Dalmatae, 260. 
Dalmatia, 260. 
Damascus, 297. 
Damnonici, 271. 
Damnonium, prom., 271. 
Danapris, fl., 6. 
Danubius, fl., 6. 
Darae, 309, 
Dascylium, 217. 
Dastarcon, 247, 
Decapolis, 302. 
Decelea, 59. 
Decumates agri, 7. 
Delas, fl., 285. 
Delemna, 244. 



Delium, 50. 
Delos, ins,, 85. 
Delphi, 37. 
Delta, 811, 
Demetae, 271, 
Demetrias, 24, 
Derbe, 246, 
Deva, 272. 
Dianium, ins., 169. 
Dicte, mons, 89. 
Didymus, mons, 238. 
Dinaretum, prom., 253. 
Diocaesarea, 303. 
Diolcos, 65. 

Diomedeae insulae, 152. 
Dioscurias, 279. 
Diospolis Magna, 311. 
Dirce, fons, 45. 
Doanas, fl., 293. 
Dobuni, 271. 
Docimia, 241. 
Dodecaschoenus, 811. 
Dodona, 18. 
Doliche, 210. 
Dolopia, 19. 
Dorias, fl., 293. 
Doris, Graeciae, 83. 
Dorylaeum, 241. 
Drangiana, 289. 
Dravus, fl., 276. 
Drepanum, prom., 68, 21 

op., 180. 

Drilo, fl., 259. 
Drinnus, fl., 258. 
Dulichium, ins., 27. 
Durius, fl., 263. 
Durocortorum, 269. 
Durotriges, 271. 
Dyardanes, fl., 293. 
Dyme vel Dymae, 69. 
Dyrrhachium, 260. 
Dyrin, 316. 



Ebal, mons, 801. 
Eblana, 273. 
Eboracum, 272, 
Ebudae, ins., 272. 
Ebusus, ins, 265. 
Ecbatana, 286, 291. 
Echinades, insulae, 27. 
Edessa, 261, 282. 
Edomites, 305. 
Egesta, 181. 
Egnatia, 154. 
Elaiticus sinus, 198. 
Elasa, prom,, 253. 
Elatea, 40. 
Elath, 305. 
Elea vel Velia, 162. 
Eleusis, 56. 
Eleutherae, 60. 
Eleutherus, fl., 298. 
Elgovae, 271. 
Elicyci, 266. 
Elis, 70. 

op., 71. 

Emesa, 297. 



322 



INDEX. 



Emporiae, 263, 
Enipeus, fl., 17. 
Enna, 183. 
Eous oceanus, 2. 
Epei, TO. 
Ephesus, 204. 
Ephraim, mons, 801. 
Ephyra, 65. 
Epidaranus, 260. 
Epiphania, 233. 
Epirus, 17. 

Erebantium, prom,, 184. 
Eresus, 19S. 
Eretria, 63. 
Eridanus, fl., 95. 
Erigon, fl., 261. 
Erineus, 33. 

Erymanthus. mons., 9, 64, 
83, 84. 

, fl., 289. 

Erysiche, 30. 
Erysichaei, 30. 
Eryx, 180. 
Erythrae, 206. 
Eythraeum mare, 304. 
Esdraelon, 801. 
Etruria, 91, 111. 
Erymandrus, fl., 289. 
Euarchus, fl., 218. 
Euboea, 10, 60. 
Euboicum mare, 60. 
Eudocia, 231. 
Euergetae, 289. 
Euganei, 104. 
Eulaeus, fl., 286. 
Eumenia, 242. 
Eupatoria, 224. 
Euphrates, 281. 
Euripus, 12, 62. 
Euromus, 213. 
Europa, 4, 256. 
Europus, fl., 17. 
Eurotas, fl., 13, 15, 64, 76. 
Eurymedon, fl., 230. 
Euxiims Pontus, 5, 6. 
Evaspla, fl., 290. 
Evenus, fl., 13, 193. 
Eziongeber, 305. 



F 

Eaesulae, 113. 
Falerii, 117. 
Faustinopolis, 247. 
Favoni Portus, 186. 
Ficaria, Portus, 186. 
Fidenae, 123. 
Flanaticus sinus, 109. 
Flavia Cfesariensi.s, 270. 
Flevum, 266. 
Florentia, 118, 
Forentum, 154, 
Formiae, 137. 
Forum Appii, 135. 

Julii, 110. 

Gallorum, 107. 

Lepidi, 107. 

Sempronli, 119. 

Fossa, 18& 



Frentani, 150, 
Frento, fl,, 151. 
Frisii, 275. 
Fucinus lacus, 100. 
Furculae Caudinae, 150, 



Gabii, 132. 

Gabceta silva, 274. 

Gadara, 303. 

Gadeira vel Gades, ins., 270, 

Gades, 263, 264. 

Gaditamim fretum, 262. 

Gaetulia, 309. 

Gaetuli, 309. 

Gagae, 249. 

Galatia, 242. 

Galilaea, 302. 

Gallaeci, 264. 

Gallia, 265. 

Belgica, 267. 

Cisalpina, 91, 103. 

Cispadana, 104. 

Lugdunensis, 267. 

Narbonensis, 267. 

Transpadana, 104. 

Gallicum fretum, 5. 
Ganges, 292, 293. 
Gangeticus sinus, 293. 
Gangra, 220. 
Garamantes, 309. 
Garganus, mons, 93. 
Garganum, prom,, 93, 152. 
Garumna, fl., 6, 265. 
Gaugamela, 285. 
Gauionitis, 302. 
Gaulos, ins., 188. 
Gauzaca, 290. 

Gaza, 303, 
Gedrosia, 289. 
Gela, 178, 249. 
Genabum, 268. 
Gennesareth, lacus, 300. 
Genua, 102. 
Geraestus, prom., 64. 
Geriziui, mons, 301. 
Germania, 273. 
Germanicum mare, 5. 
Gerrha, 306. 
Gerrhaei, 305. 
Gesoriacum, 269. 
Getae, 257. 
Gilead, mons, 301. 
Giligaminae, 313. 
Gir, fl,, 309. 
Glevum, 272. 
Gomphi, 20. 
Gonnus, 20. 
Gordiaei montes, 284. 
Gorditanum, prom., 184. 
Gordium, 244, 
Gordyene, 285. 
Gortyna, 89. 
Goshen, 311. 
Graecia, 7. 

Magna, 92, 168. 

Propria, 8. 

Graeci, 7. 



Qranicus, fl,, 193. 
Grumentum, 162. 
Gyarus, ins,, 87. 
Gymnesiae, ins,, 265. 
Gyndes, fl,, 285. 
Gythium, 76. 



Hadrlanopolis, 217. 
Hadrumetum, 315. 
Hadria, 109. 
Hadriaticus sinus, 5. 
Haemus, mons, 6, 256. 
Haliacmon, fl., 261. 
Haliartus, 49. 

lacus, 49. 

Halicarnassus, 212. 
Halycus, fl., 173. 
Halys, fl., 218,221,243. 
Hamaxobii, 278, 
Haran, 282. 
Harmozica, 280. 
Harpasus, fl., 211. 
Hatra, 283. 
Hebron, 302. 
Hebrus, fl,, 256. 
Hecatompylos, 288. 
Helice, 68. 

Helicon, mons, 8, 41. 
Heliopolis, 311. 
Helisson, fl., 84. 
Helium Ostium, 266. 
Hellas, 7. 
Hellenopolis, 217. 
Hellespontus, 5, 196. 
Helorus, op., 178. 
Helorus, fl,, 173. 
Helos, 77. 
Hephaestia, 199. 
Heptanomis, 311. 
Heraclea, 256. 
Minoa, 179. 

Phthiotidis,24 

Pontica, 216. 

Trachiniae, 24. 

ad Sirim, 160. 

Heracleum, 224. 
Heraei montes, 172. 
Herculaneum, 143, 
Herculeum fretum, 5. 
Herculis, prom,, 93. 
Hercynia silva, 274. 
Herdonia, 153. 
Hermaeum, prom., 184, 815. 
Hermiones, 275. 
Hermon, mons, 301. 
Hermunduri, 275. 
Hermus, fl„ 201, 239, 
Hernici, 133. 
Heroopolites, sinus, 804, 
Hesperia, 90. 

Hesperis, 313. 
Hestiaea, 61. 
Hestiaeotis, 19. 
Hesudrus, fl., 293. 
Hexapolis, Dorian, 211. 
Hibernia, 272. 
Hiddekel,fl.,281. 





INDEX. 


32c 


Hiera, ins., 187. 


Imbros, Ins., 199. 


Lacmon, mons, 8. 


Hierapolis, 240. 


Inachus, fl., 15. 


Laconica or Laconia, 75. 


Hierocaesarea, 202. 


Inarime, ins., 170» 


Laconicus sinus, 10, 11. 


Ilieromiax, fl., 303. 


India, 292. 


Ladon, fl., 14. 


Himcra, fl., 173. 


Indus, 239. 


Laevi, 104. 


op., 181. 


Inferum mare, 102. 


Lalassis, 249. 


Hippo Kegius, 816. 


Ingaevones, 275. 


Lameticus sinus, 101. 


Zaritus, 315. 


Insani monies, 184. 


Lametus, fl., 163. 


Hippocrene, fons., 41. 


Insubres, 104. 


Lamia, 24. 


Hippo Diarrhytus, portus, 


Interamna, 120. 


Lampsacus, 196. 


Internum mare, 8. • 


Lamus, fl., 231. 


Hirpinl, 150. 


lobia, 231. 


Langobardi, 275. 


Hispalis, 264. 


lolcos, 23. 


Lanuvium, 131. 


Hispania, 262. 


Ionia, 202. 


Laodicea Combusta, 246. 


Histiaea, 61. 


Ionium mare, 10. 


Laodicea ad Lycum, 239. 


Histria, 109. 


Ipsus, 241. 


Laranda, 245. 


Homeritae, 305. 


Ira, 75. 


Larinum, 151. 


Homole, mons, 19. 


Iris, fl., 221. 


Larissa, 22. 


Horeb, mons., 804. 


Isaura, 248. 


Larissa Ephesia, 201. 


Hybla, 182. 


Isauria, 228, 248. 


Assyr., 285. 


Hydaspes, fl., 293. 


Isca, 272. 


Larissus, fl., 14. 


Hydraotes, fl., 293. 


Ischopolis, 224. 
Isis, fl., 221. 


Larius lacus, 101. 


Hydria, prom., 193. 
Hydrus vel Hydruntum, 


Latium, 91, 128. 


Ismenus, fl., 16. 


Laureacum, 277. 


156. 


Issedones, 295. 


Laurentura, 131. 


Hylas, fl., 163. 


Issus, 233. 


Laurium, 57. 


Hyle, 49. 


Istaevones, 275. 


T,nnR, 162. 


Hylika, lacus, 45, 49. 


Ister, fl., 6, 275. 


Laus Pompeia, 105. 


Hymettus, mons, 8, 69. 


Istria, 91, 109. 


Lavinium, 131. 


Hypaepa, 202. 


Istrus, 258. 


Lebadea, 46. 


Hypanis, fl., 2T8. 


Italia, 90, 


Lebedus, 205. 


Hyperborei montes, 6, 278. 


Ithaca, ins., 27. 


Lechaeum, port., 65. 


Hyphasis, fl., 293. 
Hypsas, fl., 178. 


op. 28. 


Lectum, prom., 193. 


Ithome, mons, 75. 
Itius Portus, 269. 


Leleges, 26. 


Hyrie, lacus, 32. 


Lemannus, lacus, 265. 


Hyrcania, 288. 


Ituna, aest., 271. 


Lemnos, ins., 10, 198. 




Ituraea, 802. 


Leo, fl., 298. 




luverni, 273. 


Leontes, fl., 298. 


I 




Leontini, 175. 
Leptis Mn,£^na, 314. 


lalysus, 211, 251. 


J 


Lerna, lacus, 12, 80. 


lapydes, 200. 




Leros, ins., 214. 


lapygia, 155. 


Jabadii, ins., 293. 


Lesbos, ins., 10, 197. 


lapygum, prom., 93. 


Jabbok,fl.,302,303. 


Lethaeus, fl., 17. 


tria, prom., 93. 


Jebus, 802. 


Leuca, 156, 213. 


lasius sinus, 210. 


Jericho, 802. 


Leucadia vel Leucas, ins 


lassus, 213. 


Jerusalem, 302. 


27. 


laxartes, fl., 291. 


Jol, 317. 


Leucaa vel Leucate, prom 


lazyges, 259, 278. 


Joppa, 303. 


26. 


Metanastae, 259. 


Jordan, fl., 800. 


LeucoUa, 253. 


Iberes, 280. 


Judaea, 302. 


Leucopetra, prom., 94. 


Iberia, 263, 279. 


Jura, mons, 266. 


Leucosyri, 222. 


Iberus, fl., 6, 262. 


Juvavum, 277. 


Leuctra, 42. 


Icarus, 210. 




Libanus, mons, 296. 


Icarium mare, 10. 




Libethrius, mons, 46. 


Iceni, 271. 


K 


Libici, 104. 


Iconium, 245. 




Liburni, 260. 


Ida, mons, 193. 


Katakekaumene, 246. 


Libya, 807 


Idalium, 253. 


Kedar, 306. 


Libyssa, 217. 
Lichades, iusulae, 85. 


Idubeda, mons, 262. 


Kidron, torrens., 804. 


Igilium, ins., 169. 


Kishon, fl., 298. 


Liger, fl., 265. 


Iguvium, 119. 


Kison Minor, fl., 804. 


Liguria, 91, 102. 


Ihpula, mons, 262. 




Ligusticus sinus, 101. 


llissus, fl., 16. 




Ligyes, 266, 

Lilybaeum, prom, et op 


Hium, 194. 


li 


Novum, 194. 




171,179. 


Vetus, 194. 


Labranda, 213. 


Lindum, 272. 


Illyricum or Illyria, 259. 


Labutas, mons, 288. 


Lindus, 211, 251. 


11 va, ins., 169. 


Lacedaemon, 78. 


Lingones, 104. 


Imaus, mons, 294. 


Lacinium, prom., 93. 


Lipara, ins., 167, 



324: 



INDEX. 



Liris, fl., 97, 140. 
Liternum, 141. 
Lisus Tel Lixa, 817. 
Locri, 33. 
Epicnemidii, 34. 

Epizephyrii, 165. 

Opuntii, 35. 

Ozolae, 34. 

Locras, fl., 186. 
Locris, 33. 
Londinium, 272. 
Longi Muri, 55. 
Lormm, 115. 
Loryma, 213. 
Lotophagi, 314. 
Luca, 112. 
Lucania, 91, 153. 
Luceria, 152. 
Lucrinus lacus, 99. 
Lugdunum, 268, 
Luna, 112. 
Lunae montes, 310. 
Luppia, fl., 275. 
Lusitani, 264. 
Lutetia Parisiorum, 26S. 
Lycaeus, mons, 9, 83, 84. 
Lycaonia, 244 

Lycia, 224. 
Lycus, fl., 239, 284. 

fl., Phoenic, 298, 

Lydia, 199. 
Lyrna, 231. 
Lyrnessus, 231. 
Lysimachia, lacus, 32. 
Lystra, 246. 



Macae, 314. 
Macaria, 74. 
Macedonia, 260. 
Macestus, fl., 193. 
Maeander, fl., 201, 210, 239. 
Maenalus, mons, 9, 83, 85. 
Maenaria, Ins., 169. 
Maeonia, 199. 
Maeotis Palus, 5. 
Magnesia, 19. 23. 

■ ■ ad Sipylum, 201. 

Masoras, fl., 298. 
Magnus sinus, 293, 308. 
Malea, prom., 9, 77. 
Maliacus sinus, 10, 11. 
Malis, 19. 

Mallorum Urbs, 293. 
Mallus, 233. 
Mamertium, 168. 
Manduria, 156. 
Mantinea, 84. 

Mantinorum Oppidum, 186. 
Mantua, 106. 
Maracanda, 291. 
Marathon, 53. 
Marcomanni, 276. 
Margiana, 291. 
Margus, fl., 253, 291. 
Mariana Colonia, 186. 
Marian um, prom., 186. 
Marianus, mons, 262. 



Maris, fl,, 258. 
Marmarica, 312. 
Marmarium, 63. 
Marruvium, 124. 
Marrucini, 125, 
Marsi, 124. 
Marsyas, fl., 211, 239. 
Maryandini, 214. 
Masius, mons, 282. 
Massaesylii, 317. 
Massagetae, 295. 
Massicus, mons, 140. 
Massilia, 266, 268. 
Massylii, 316. 
Matrona, fl., 266, 
Mattiaci, 275. 
Mauretania, 308, 316. 
Mauri, 317. 

Maxima Caesariensis, 270. 
Mazaca, 247. 
Medama, fl., 163. 
Media, 236. 
Mediolanum, 105. 
Mediterraneum. mare, 3. 
Megalopolis, 84. 
Megara, 51. 
Megaris, 51. 
Melano-Gaetuli, 309. 
Melas, fl., 43, 230, 232. 
Melisse, 241. 
Melita, ins. et op., 188. 
Melitene, 247. 
Melos, ins., 86. 
Memphis, 311. 
Mercurii, prom., 315. 
Meroe, 312. 
Mesogaea vel Mesogys, 

mons, 239. 
Mesopotamia, 282. 
Messana, 174. 
Messapia, 155. 
Messenia, 74. 
Messene, 75. 

Messeniacus sinus, 10, 11. 
Messogis, 201. 
Metapontum, 159. 
Metaris Aestuarium, 271. 
Metaurus, fl., 97, 163. 
Methymna, 193. 
Metropolis, 202, 241. 
Mevania, 119. 
Midaeum, 241. 
Midea, 46. 
Midianites, 305. 
Miletus, 203. 
Milyas, 228. 
Mincius, 95. 
Minervae, prom., 94. 
Minius, fl., 263. 
Minoa, ins. vel prom,, 52. 
Minturnae, 137. 
Minyae, 47. 
Minyan, 47. 
Misenum, prom., 94. 
Misthia, 245. 
Moabites, 305. 
Moenus, fl,, 275, 
Moeris, lacus, 310. 
Moesi vel Mysi, 258. 
Moesia, 257. 



Mogantiacum, 269* 
Mogros, fl,, 221. 
Molossi, 18. 
Molossis, 18. 
Molycria, 33. 
Molycricum, 33. 
Mona, ins,, 272. 
Monapia, ins., 272. 
Mopsuestia, 235, 
Moriah, mons, 302. 
Moricambe Aest,, 271. 
Mortuum mare, 300. 
Mosa, fl., 266. 
Mosella, fl., 266,/ 
Mosyua, 241. 
Motya. 180. 
Muluciia, fl., 317. 
Munda, 264. 
Munychia, portus, 54. 
Mursa, 277. 
Mutina, 107. 
Mycale, prom., 210. 
Mycenae, 80. 
Myconus, ins., 87. 
Mygdones, 214. 
Mygdonius, fl., 282. 
Mylae, 132. 
Mylasa, 212. 
Myndus, 213. 
Myos Hormos, 311. 
Myra vel Myron, 226. 
Myi-ina, 199. 
Myrtoum, mare, 10. 
Mysia, 192. . 
Mytilene, 197. 
Myus, 204. 



N 

Naarmalcha, 283. 
Naarsares, 283. 
Nabataei, 305. 
Nacolia, 241. 
Naparis, fl., 258. 
Nar, fl., 96. 
Narbo, 267, 263. 
Narnia, 120. 
Naro, fl., 259. 
Narona, 260. 
Nasamones, 313, 314. 
Naucratis, 311. 
Naupactus, 34. 
Nauplia, 80. 
ISTava, fl., 266. 
Naxos, ins., 86. 
Naxos, op., 175. 
Nazareth, 303. 
Nazianzus, 248. 
Neaethus, fl., 163. 
Neapolis, 143, 

Palaestinae, 303. 

Nebo, mons, 301. 
Nebrodes, mons, 171. 
Neda, fl., 15. 
Neium, mons, 28. 
Nemausus, 268, 
JSTeocaesarea, 224. 
Nerigos, 276, 
Neritum, mons, 28. 



INDEX. 



325 



Nesis, ins., 170. 
Nestus, fl., 256. 
Neuri, 278. 
Nicaea, 102, 215. 
Nicer, fl., 274. 
Nicomedia, 216. 
Nicopolis, 18. 
Nisritis, lacus, 309. 
Nilus, fl., 310. 
Nineveh, 2S5. 
Niphates, inons, 281. 
Nisaea, portus, 52. 
Nisati campi, 286. 
Nisibis, 282. 

Nitriae vel Nitrariae, 810. 
Noes, fl., 258. 
Nola, 147. 
Nora, 185. 
Norba, 136. 
Noreia, 277. 
Noricum, 276. 
Nostrum mare, 3. 
Novaria, 104. 
Nuba, lacus, 309. 
Nuceria, 148. 
Numantia, 264. 
Numidia, 315. 
Nursia, 124. 



Oasis, Major, 308. 

- Minor, 308. 
~— Ammon, 308. 

Augela, 308. 

Pliazania, 309. 

Ocellum, prom., 271. 
Ochus, fl., 288. 
Ocinarus, fl., 163. 
Ocrinum, prom., 271. 
Octopitarum, prom., 271. 
Odessus, 258. 
Odrysae, 256. 

Oea, 314. 

Oechardes, fl., 294. 
Oedanes, fl., 293. 
Oeniadae, 30. 
Oenoe, 224. 
Oenus, fl., 76. 
Oeta, mons, 8. 
Oetaea, 19. 
Os;lasa, Ins., 169. 
Olba vel Olbe, 236. 
Olbia, 217, 230. 

Sarmat., 278. 

Olearus, Ins., 86. 
Olgassys, mons, 218. 
Olpae, 30. 
Olympia, 72. 

Olympus, mons, 8, 20, 192, 

193, 218, 238, 252. 
Olynthus, 261. 
Omana, 289. 
On, 311. 
Ophir, 305. 

Ophiussa, Ins., 265, 87. 
Opuntius, sinus, 11. 
Opus, 35. 
Oraea, 289i 



Orbelus, mous, 260. 
Orbis terrarum, 1. 
Orcades, ins., 272. 
Orchomenus, 47. 
Ordessus, fl., 258. 
Ordovices, 276. 
Orontes, fl., 296. 
Oropus, 51. 
Ortospana, 290. 
Ortygia, ins., 176. 
Ossa, mons, 8, 20. 
Ostia, 130. 
Othrys, mons, 8. 
Otodeni, 271. 
Oxii montes, 291. 
Oxus, fl., 290. 



Pacbynus, prom., 171. 
Padus, fl., 6, 94. 
Padyandus, 247. 
Paeonia, 261. 
Paestanus, sinus, 101. 
Paestum, 161. 
Pagasae, 23. 

Pagasaeus, sinus, 10, 12. 
Pagida, fl., 298. 
Palaestina, 299. 
Palanta, 186. 
Palica, 183. 
Palinurum, prom., 94. 
Pallacopas, 283. 
Pale vel Palle, 29. 
Pallene, penins., 260. 
Palmaria, ins., 169. 
Palmyra, 297. 
Palus Maeotis, 5. 

Pambotis, 18. 

Pamisus, fl., 15, 64. 
Pamphylia, 229. 
Pandataria, ins., 169 
Pandosia, 18. 
Pangaeus, mons, 260. 
Pannonia, 276, 277. 
Panormus, 181. 
Panticapaeum, 278. 
Papblagonia, 217. 
Paphos, 254. 
Paraetacene, 287. 
Paraetonium, 313. 
Paralais, 245. 
Paralia, 53. 
Parisi, 271. 
Parma, 107. 
Parnassus, mons, 8, 39. 
Parnes, mons, 60. 
Parnon, mons, 76. 
Paropamisadae, 288, 290. 
Paropamisus, mons, 290. 
Paros, Ins., 86. 
Partbenope, 143, 249. 
Parthenius, mons, 9. 

fl., 214, 218. 

Partbia, 288, 292. 
Paryadres, mons, 192, 221. 
Pasargadae, 287. 
Pasitigris, 283. 
Patara, 226. 



Patavium, 109. 
Patbissus, fl., 258. 
Patmos, ins., 214. 
Patrae, 69. 
Pattala, 293. 
Pausilypus, 141. 
Pedalium, prom., 210, 253. 
Pelasgiotis, 19. 
Peligni, 124. 
Pelion, mons, 8, 20. 
Pella, 240, 261, 303. 
Pellene, 67. 

Peloponnesus, 8, 64. * 
Pelorus, prom., 171. 
Pelso, lacus, 277. 
Peltae, 240. 
Pelusium, 311. 
Peneus, fl., 18, 16. 
Pentelicus, mons, 8 
Peor, mons, 301. 
Pepuza, 242. 
Peraea, 302. 
Pergamum vel Pergamua, 

195. 
Perga vel Perge, 230. 
Perrbaebi, 19. 
Perintbus, 256. 
Persepolis, 287. 
Persicus sinus, 304. 
Persis, 285, 287. 
Perusia, 116. 
Pessinus, 243. 
Petelia, 164. 
Petra, 245, 305. 
Pence, ins., 258. 
Peucetia, 151, 155. 
Peucini, 258. 
Pbalerum, portus, 55. 
Pbanagoria, 295. 
Pbarium, prom., 253. 
Pbarnacia, 223. 
Pharnacotis, 289. 
Pbarsalia, 23. 
Pbarsalus, 22. 
Pbarusii, 309. 
Pbaselis, 227. 
Pbasis, fl., 4, 221, 279. 
Pbazania, Oasis, 309. 
Pbeneus, 83. 
Pberae, 22. 
Pbigalia, 84. 
Pbiladelpbia, 201. 

Palaestinae, 303. 

Philippi, 262. 
Pbilippopolis, 257. 
Pbilomelium, 241. 
Pblegyae, 47. 
Pblius, 69. 
Pbocaea, 206. 
Phocis, 35. 
Phoenicia, 297. 
Phoenix, portus, 89. 
Phoenix, 213. 
Pholoe, mons, 72. 
Phorbantia, ins., 187. 
Phorcys, portus, 28. 
Phraaspa, 287. 
Phrygia, 237. 

Epictetus, 238, 241. 

— - H:ellespontica,288. 



326 



INDEX. 



Phrygia Pacatiana, 238. 

Parorios, 238. 

Propria, 238. 

Salutaris, 238. 

Phthiotis, 19. 
Phyle, 59. 
Physcus, fl., 284. 
Picenum, 91, 120. 
Picentes, 120. 
Picentia, 148. 
Picentini, 148. 
Pigrum mare, 5. 
Pindus, op., 33. 
Pindus, mons, 8. 
Pinna, 125. 
Piraeus, portus, 54. 
Pisa, Tl, 72. 
Pisae, 112. 
Pisatis, 71, T2. 
Pisidia, 279. 
Pison, fl., 281. 
Pistoria, 113. 
Pithecusa, ins., 170. 
Pityus, 295. 
Pityusae, ins., 265. 
Placentia, 107. 
Planasia, ins., 169. 
Plataeae, 43. 
Plistus, fl., 13. 
Plotae, insulae, 80. 
Pogon, 81. 

Pola, 110. 

Polaticum, proip., 93. 
Polemonium, 222. 
Polybotus, 240. 
Pompeii, 144. 
Pompeiopolis, 234. 
Pomptinae paludes, 137. 
Pontanus lacus, 152. 
Pontia, ins., 169. 
Pontus Euxinus, 5. 
Pontus, 220. 
Populonium, 113. 
Populonium, prom., 94. 
Portae Caspiae, 288. 

Ciliciae, 234, 

Porthmos, 63. 

Portus Eomanus vel 

Augusti, 131. 
Posidium, prom., 210. 
Posidonium, prom., 94 
Potidaea, 67, 261. 
Praeneste, 133. 
Prasum, prom., 308. 
Pregella, 245. 
Priene, 204. 
Prochyta, ins., 170. 
Proni vel Pronesus, 29, 
Proplithasia,289. 
Propontis, 5. 
Prusa, 217. 
Psophis, 29. 
Psylli, 314, 
Ptolemais, 298, 313. 
Pulchrum prom., 315. 
.Pura, 289. 
Puteoli, 142. 
Pylae Albaniae, 280. 

• Caucasiae, 280. 

■ Ciliciae, 234. 



Pylos, 71. 

Triphyliacus, 73. 

Messeniacus, 74. 

Pyramus, fl., 231. 
Pyrenaei montes, 6. 
Pyretus, fl., 258. 
Pyrgi vel Pyrgos, 115. 
Pythium, 21. 



Quadi, 276. 



Eabbath Ammon, 303. 

Moab, 303. 

Eagae, 287. 
Eamoth Gilead, 303. 
Eavenna, 107, 
Eeate, 123. 
Eegillus lacus, 98. 
Eegni, 271. 

Eegnum Axomitarum, 312, 
Eesen, 285. 
Eha, fl., 6. 
Ehaetia, 276. 
Ehamnus, 58. 
Ehegium, 166. 
Eheithron, portus, 28. 
Ehenus, fl., 6, 266, 274. 
Ehipaei montes, 6, 273. 
Ehium, prom., 9, 186. 
Ehoda, 249. 
Ehodanos, fl., 6, 265. 
Ehodius, fl., 193. 
Ehodope, mons, 256. 
Ehodus, ins., 249. 

op., 250. 

Eboetius, mons, 186. 
Ehotanus, fl., 186. 
Ehyndacus, fl., 193, 214, 239. 
Eiduna, ins., 269. 
Eoma, 126. 
Eoxolani, 278. 
Eubi, 155. 
Eubico, fl., 98. 
Eubricatus, fl., 316. 
Eubrum mare, 304. 
Eudiae, 155. 
Eugii, 275. 
Euscicada, 316. 
Eusellae, 114. 
Eutupiae, 272. 



Sabaci, 305. 
Sabaricus sinus, 293, 
Sabatinus lacus, 99, 100. 
Sabatus, fl., 140, 163. 
Sabbaticus fl., 298. 
Sabini, 122. 
Sabrata, 314. 
Sabriana Aest., 271. 
Sabrina, fl., 271. 
Sacae, 296. 



Sacrum prom., 186. 

fl,, 184. 

Sagras, fl., 164. 
Saguntum, 264. 
Sahara, 308. 
Salacia, 249. 
Salamis, ins., 57. 

op. Cypr,, 253. 

Salapia, 153, 
Salas, fl., 275. 
Salassi, 104. 
Salernum, 148. 
Salice, ins., 293. 
Salmona, prom,, 88. 
Salona, 260. 
Samaria, 302, 303. 
Same, ins., 28. 
Samnites, ins., 149. 
Samnium, 91, 148. 
Samos, ins., 10, 207. 
Samosata, 297. 
Samothracia, 257. 
Sangarlus, fl., 214, 243. 
Sardis, 201, 

Sardo vel Sardinia, ins., 5, 

183. 
Sariphi, montes, 288. 
Sarmatae, 295, 
Sarmatia, 277, 295. 
Sarnia, ins., 269. 
Sarnus, fl., 140. 
Saronas Planities, 301. 
Saronicus sinus, 10, 11. 
Sarsina, 119. 
Sarug, 282, 
Sarus, fl., 231. 
Sasima, 248. 
Satnois, fl., 193. 
Saturium, 158. 
Savo, fl., 140. 
Savus, fl., 276. 
Saxones, 275. 
Scamander, fl., 193. 
Scandiae insulae, 276. 
Scardona, 260. 
Scenitae, 306. 
Scepsis, 196. 
Scheria, 18. 
Schoenus portus, 65. 
Scillus, 73, 
Scironides petrae, vel Sci- 

ronia Saxa, 51. 
Scius, fl., 258, 
Scoedisus, mons, 192. 
Scotussa, 22, 
Scylacium, 165. 
Scyllace, 217. 
Scyllaceus sinus, 101. 
Scythia, 294. 
Sebaste, 235, 244. 

Palaestinae, 803. 

Sebastopolis, 279. 
Sebethus, fl., 140. 
Sebinus lacus, 101. 
Segesta, 181. 
Seleucia, 231. 

Trachea, 235. 

ad Tigrin, 284 

Selge, 228. 
Selinus, 179, 236. 



INDEX. 



327 



Sellasia, 79. 

Semechonites, lacus, 800. 

Semirus, 11., 163. 

Semnones, 275. 

Sena Galiica, 118. 

Sentinum, 119. 

Sephela planitics, 301. 

Sepinum, 150. 

Sepphoris, 303. 

Sequana, fl., 6, 266. 

aera, 294. 

Serica, 292, 294. 

Seriphus, ins., 86. 

Serus, fl., 293. 

Sesamus, fl., 218, op., 220. 

Sessites, fl., 104. 

Sestos, 257. 

Seteia Aest, 271. 

Setia, 136. 

Sharon, 301. 

Sheba, 305. 

Shinar, 283. 

Shushan, 286. 

Sicca Veneria, 316. 

Siceli, vel Siculi, vel Si- 

cani, 173. 
Sichem, 303. 
Sicilia, ins., 171. 
Siculum fretum 171. 
Sicyonia, 69. 
Side, 280. 
Sidon, 293, 299. 
Sigaeum, prom., 193. 
Si^nia, 136. 
Siiarus, fl., 140, 163. 
Silla, fl., 285. 
Silures, 271. 
Simaethus, fl., 172. 
Simois, fl., 193. 
Sinatum sinus, 294. 
Sinae, 292, 293. 
Sinai, mons, 304. 
Sinda, 295. 
Sinonia, ins., 169. 
Sinope, 219. 
Singiticus, sinus, 261. 
Sipontum, 152. 
Sipylus, mons, 201. 
Siraceni, 295. 
Sirenusae, ins., 148. 
Siris, 249. 
Sirmium, 277. 
Siscia, 277. 

Sithonia, peninsula, 260. 
Sitifi, 317. 
Smyrna, 206. 
Sogdiana, 291. 
Sogdii montes, 291. 
Soli vel Soloe, 233, 249. 

in Cyprus, 253. 

Sparta, 78. 
Spauta, lacus, 286. 
Sperchius, fl., 13, 16. 
Sphacteria, ins., 74. 
Sphagia, ins.,. 74. 
Spina, 108. 
Spoletium, 119. 
Sporades insulae, 10, 87. 
Stabiae, 145. 
Stentoris sinus, 256. 



Stenyclerus, campus et op., 

75. 
Stertorium, 242. 
Stratonicea, 213. 
Stratonis Turris, 303. 
Stratus, 30. 
Strongyle, ins., 187. 
Strophades, ins., 80. 
Strymon, fl., 261. 
Strymonicus sinus, 261. 
Stymphalus, 84. 
Stymphalis, lacus, 12, 64, 84. 
Subur, fl., 317. 
Sudeti montes, 274. 
Suessa Aurunca, 146. 
Suevi, 275. 
Suevicum mare, 5. 
Suiones, 275. 
Sulcense prom., 184. 
Sulci, 185. 
Sulmo, 125. 
Sunium, prom., 9, 57. 
Superum mare, 102. 
Surrentum, 146. 
Susa, 286, 291. ' 
Susiana, 286. 
Sybaris, 160, 249. 
Sycambri, 275. 
Syene, 311. 
Syllium, 230. 
Synnada vel Synnas, 240. 
Sypbnos, ins., 86. 
Syracusae, 67, 176. 
Syracusanus J?ortus, 186. 
Syria, 296. 
Syros, ins., 86. 
Syrtica, 312. 
Syrtica Eegio, 314. 
Syrtis Major, 308. 
Minor, 308. 



Tabae, 241. 
Tabernae, Tres, 135. 
Tabor, mons, 301. 
Tabuzion, 241. 
Tacina, fl., 163. 
Taenarum, prom,, 9, 77. 
Tagus, fl., 6, 263. 
Tamarus, fl., 140. 
Tamesis, fl., 271. 
Tamyras, 298. 
Tanagra, 50. 
Tanais, fl., 6, 278. 
Tanais, op., 278, 295. 
Taphiae vel Teleboae inisu- 

lae, 27, 29. 
Taphos, ins., 29. 
Taprobane, ins., 293. 
Tarabenorum Vicus, 186. 
Tarentinus sinus, 101. 
Tarentum, 156. 
Tarquinii, 114. 
Tarracina, 135. 
Tarraco, 263, 264. 
Tarsius, fl., 193. 
Tarsus, 234. 
Tartessus, 263. 



Tatta, lacus, 245. 

op., 245. 

Tauchira, 313. 
Taulantii, 260. 
Taunus, mons, 274. 
Tauracia, 103 
Tauri, 278. 

Taurica Chersonesus, 278. 
Taurini, 103, 104. 
Tauromenium, 175. 
Taurus, mons, 191. 
Tavium, 244. 
Tavola, fl., 186. 
Taygetus, mons, 9, 64. 
TaxUa, 293. 
Teanum Apulum, 152. 
Teanum Sidicinum, 146. 
Teate, 125. 
Tegea, 85. 
Telamo, 114. 
Teleboae, insulae, 27, 29. 
Telesia, 150. 
Telmessus, 227. 
Temnus, mons, 193. 
Tempo, vallis, 21. 
Tencteri, 275. 
Tenedos, ins., 198. 
Tenos, ins., 87. 
Teos, 205. 
Tergeste, 100. 
Tersrestinus sinus, 101. 
Terias, fl., 172. 
Terina, 166. 
Termessus, 228. 
Termus, fl. 184. 
Testrina, 124. 
Teuthrania, 193. 
Teutoburgiensis silva, 2T4. 
Thambes, mons, 316. 
Thapsus, 815. 
Thasos, ins., 257. 
Thaumaci, 23. 
Thebae, 44, 311. 
Thebais, 311. 
Themiscyra, 223. 
Theodosia, 278. 
Thera, ins., 87. 
Tberapne, 78. 
Therma, 32. 
Thermaicus sinus, 10, 12, 

261. 
Thermopylae, 25. 
Thermum, 32. 
Thespiae, 42. 
Thesprotia, 18. 1. 
Thesproti, 18. 
Thessalia, 19. 
Thessaliotis, 19. 
Thessalonica, 261. 
Theu-prosopon, prom., 298, 
Thinae, 294. 
Thisbe, 41. 
Thracia, 256. 
Thriasius Campus, 56. 
Throni, prom., 253. 
Thronium, 35. 
Thule, ins. 273. 
Thurii, 161. 
Thyamis, fl., 17. 
Thyatira, 202. 



328 



INDEX. 



Thymiaterium, 317. 
Tliyni, 214. 
Thyrsus, fl. 184. 
Thyssagetae, 295. 
Tirantus, fl., 258. 
Tiber Tel Tiberis, 111. 
Tiberias, lacus, 300. 

op., 803. 

Tibiscus, fl., 25S. 
Tibiscum, 259. 
Tibula, 184. 
Tibur, 133. 
Ticarius, fl., 186. 
Ticinum, 104, 
Tidnus, fl., 95. 
Tifata, mons, 141. 
Tifernus, fl., 151. 
Tigranocerta, 281. 
Tigris, fl., 281. 
Tilavemptus, 110. 
Timavus, fl., 98. 
Tingis, 317. 
Tinia, fl., 96. 
Tiryns, 81. 
Titaresius, fl., 17. 
Titianus Portus, 186. 
Tmolus, mons, 201. 
Tolosa, 268. 
Tomis, 258. 
Tornadotus, fl., 2S4, 
Toronaicus Sinus, 261. 
Trachis vel Tracbin, 24. 
Trachonitis, 302, 
Trais, fl., 163. 
Trapezopolis, 241. 
Trapezus, 222. 
Trasimenus lacus, 99. 
Trebia, 95. 
Trerus, fl., 134. 
Tres Tabernae, 135. 
Triballi, 258. 
Tricca, 21. 
Tridentum, 276, 
Trimetus Tel Tremitus, 

ins., 152, 
Trinobantes, 271. 
Triopium, prom., 210. 
Triphylia, 71, 73. 
Tripolis, 241, 
Tripolis, riyer of, 298, 
Tripolis, Phoenic, 298. 
Triton, fl , 315. 
Tritonis Tel Tritonitis 

lacus, 814. 



Troas, 193. 
Troezen, 81. 
Trogitis lacus, 228. 
Trogilium, prom., 210. 
Troja, 194. 
Tuder, 119, 
Turdetani, 264. 
Turduli. 264. 
Tunis Libyssonis, 184 
Tusculum,132, 
Tyana, 248. 
Tyanitis, 248. 
Tymphrestus, mons, 8. 
Tyndaris, 182. 
Tyras, fl., 258, 27S. 

op., 278. 

Tyriaeum, 246. 
Tyrrhenum marCj 102. 
Tyrus, 298, 299, 
Tysdrus, 815. 



Umbria, 91,117. 
Umbro, 14, 
Ur, 282, 
Urgo, ins., 169, 
Uria, 156. 
Ursi, prom., 184. 
Usipetes, 275. 
rtica, 315. 



Yadimonis lacus, 99, 100. 
Yagum, prom.. 186. 
"Valentia, 270. ' 
Yandalici montes, 274. 
Yectis, ins., 272, 
Yeii, 117, 

Yelia yel Elea, 162. 
Yelinus. fl. 97. 
Yelitrae, 134. 
Yenafrum, 146. 
Yenedae, 278. 
Yeneti, 108, 
Yenetia, 91, 108, 
Yenetns lacus, 266. 
Yenusia, 153. 
Yera, 287. 

Yerbanus lacus, 100, 101. 
Yercellae, 104* 



I Yerona, 106, 

I Yerulamium, 272. 

I Yestini, 125. 

Yesontic, 269. 

Yesulus, mons, 92. 

YesuTius, mons, 140. 

Yetulonii, 113. 

Yiadus yel Yiadrus, fl,, 6, 
275. 

Yibo, 166, 

Yienna, 268. 

Yindelicia, 276. 

Yindius, mons, 2QZ 

Yindobona, 277, 

Yiriballum. prom,, 186. 

Yistula, fl., 6, 275. 

Yisurgis, fl., P, 275. 

Yoges^us, mons, 266. 

Yolaterrae, 113. 

Yolsci, 134, 

Yolsinii, 116, 

Yolsiniensis lacus, 99, 100. 

Yosgesus, mons, 266. 

Yulturnum, 141, 

Yulturnus, fl,, 97, 140. 



Xantbus, fl., 225. 

op., 226. 

Xyllene, 231. 



Zabatus, fl.,284. 
Zacynthus, ins,, 27, 29. 

op., 263. 

Zagrus, mons, 284, 286. 

Zalecus, fl., 218. 

Zama, 316, 

Zaradrus, fl., 293. 

Zarmizegethusa, 259. 

Zariaspa, 290. 

Zea, portus, 54. 

Zela, 223, 

Zephyrium, prom., 98, 210, 

253. 
Zeugitana, 315. 
Zion, mons, 302. 
Zipoetes, 217. 
Zoba, 282. 




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